tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16503240238352871852024-03-18T02:06:26.168-07:00Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; Blogson TheoreticalPhysics;Astronomy; MedicalSciences,Pathology; etc.All contents,words, Syllables &;Scientificallymeaning ful sentences of all blogsposted are Strictly Copy Righted material to ProfDr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya under IPR Copy Right Acts sections-306/301/3D/107/1012/ RDF and Protect Intellectual Property Right ACT of USA-2012. Don't try to infringe, to avoid huge civil/criminal proceedings in IPR Court: Acknowledgement for all my blogs to my Spouse Mrs Sumita BhattacharyaProfessor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.comBlogger234125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-70198078700746378922024-03-16T00:05:00.000-07:002024-03-16T00:05:22.242-07:00Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; : Cautionary Advices to parents / guardians regardin...<a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2024/03/cautionary-advices-to-parents-guardians.html?spref=bl">Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; : Cautionary Advices to parents / guardians regardin...</a>: NB This very Post is ment for any National level Regional level or State level Daily News paper in any state of India and in abroad in an...Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-56317799669014661172024-03-16T00:03:00.000-07:002024-03-18T02:05:52.798-07:00Cautionary Advices to parents / guardians regarding UPES' School of Design, Bidhouli, Dehradoon, Uttarakhand, before enrollment your student for BDes course in fashion Design at least <p>NB <b>This very Post is meant for any National level Regional level or State level Daily News paper in any state of India and in abroad in any languages to be published .May be edited by the Editor </b></p><p><br /></p><p>Title </p><p>Cautionary Advices to parents / guardians This very Post is for any National level Regional level or State level daily news paper in India and abroad in any languages published </p><p><br /></p><p>Title </p><p><a href="https://medium.com/@prof.pranab/cautionary-advices-to-parents-guardians-regarding-upes-school-of-design-bidhouli-dehradoon-e750c3b24d19" target="_blank"><b>Cautionary Advices to parents / guardians regarding UPES' School of Design, Bidhouli, Dehradoon, Uttarakhand, before enrollment your student for BDes course in fashion Design at least </b></a></p><p><br /></p><p>Author -: </p><p><br /></p><p>Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya MD, (University of Calcutta) Pathology,Fic pathology; WBMES ( retired)</p><p>Ex Retired Professor,and Head Dept. of Pathology, </p><p>Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, </p><p>108,C.R.Avenue, Kolkata -700073, West Bengal, india, Department of Health and Family Welfare (WBMES wing), Government of West Bengal</p><p>Equivalent Officiating Rank ,he was retired in 2021 -: "Special Secretary " to the Government of West Bengal</p><p>Post retirement posts he served -:</p><p>Ex- Principal / Dean of JMN Medical College, JMN Educational and Research Foundation, UttarPanchpota, Chakdaha, District- Ranaghat ,West Bengal, India, pin 741222 (now under 1rst LOPof NMC New Delhi ; affiliation with WBUHS)</p><p><br /></p><p> Ex Professor and Head of Pathology Department</p><p> JIS School of Medical Sciences and Research ( under JIS University , Nilgange, Agarpara, 24 parganas North ) jagancha santragachi, Howrah District, West Bengal pin 7111302( under 1rst LOP of recognition of NMC, New Delhi)</p><p><br /></p><p>At present ( since 19.12.2023 to till date)</p><p> Principal / Dean of Krishnanagar Institute of Medical Sciences , Bhatjangla Palpara more , Krishnanagar, District -Nadia, West Bengal , India 741101( a upcoming UG private company Medical College under WBUHS affiliation) </p><p>Email profpkb@yahoo.co.in</p><p>Residential address for communication-:</p><p>Mahamaya apartment ,Block B , Mahamayatala ,54 , NSC Bose Road( Spenser gate) PO-Garia,PS Narendrapur, Kolkata - 84 ,West,Bengal India </p><p><br /></p><p> As successive Dean/ Principal of two undergraduate Medical Colleges in West Bengal state of India as an administrator, as a retired Professor and Head of the Pathology department, JISMSR at JIS University West Bengal, and retired Professor and Head of most prestigious premier institute, Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine as class-1, Group- A , Gazetted officer of WBMES cadres of government of West Bengal, as Special secretary (on detailment ) to government of West Bengal, as ex member & members Secretary of West Bengal University of Health Sciences (WBUHS) for Pathology, </p><p>I feel now compelled to share some important information about the UPES School of Design, specially for their BDes Fashion Design courses, situated at Bidholi campus, Dehradun, Uttarakhand .I have seen some many students from West Bengal, Bihar, Tripura, Assam, and North east States of India, make the blunder of enrolling them in’ UPES' at School of Design for their B.Des Design courses including from other states of India cracking all India based UPES DAT test NIFT and other all India tests and unfortunately, some of them have come later to regret their decision to enroll their names in UPES in B Des fashion Design courses as students to become honors degree holders as fashion designers and to get a standard job in the market or some students become finally compelled to drop out from the courses in that SOD institute/UPES university asking for transfer certificate and migration Certificate even in his or her 8th semesters. </p><p>Firstly I want to address the issues of cost UPES has gained notoriety for being one of the most expensive universities in india( making the higher education too much commercial and pure business with a tuition fee of Rs 17-18 lakhs INR over eight semesters in fashion design BDES course ,and for other courses ( 18 -40 lakhs INR) And when it comes to a BDes degree in fashion design, where both theoretical and practical skills and hands-on experience are crucial, this high cost may not be worth at all. In fact, there are numerous government and public universities that offer fashion design B Des courses at significantly much lower cost, without compromising on the quality of education. </p><p>Moreover, UPES' School of Design has been marred with many controversies and allegations of practicing unauthorized ,not UGC/ AICTE recognized (methods of students biometric class attendances recording system , instead of in class roll call registers records), mismanagement from UPES administration and authorities, and in poor infrastructures and doing to some student’s from West Bengal unnecessary scolding in front of others faculties and students, spying against a student by other students in same class regarding whereabouts of targeted students, mental ragging, mental harassment to students making students mentally traumatized by the female present BDes course coordinator, cluster Head of the department ( Mrs Jharana Joshi) and few faculties there , by rude behavior & often un necessary scolding and by various methods like negative remarks about a student, preventing few bengali students doing pattern, cutting and stitching garments gowns in laboratory and by making students successively and repeated plucked in their end semesters subjects, in juries (university end semesters), purposefully, vindictively, by not allowing students to finish up their courses in scheduled period and scheduled time frame of admission academic sessions and thus she compel students to extend students times, beyond schedule academic sessions of admission ( say for admission sessions for 2020-2024) to finish the course and forces to lag behind time completing his/ her course for further two or three or four extra semesters fees to get degree or make students and their parents bound to take Transfer and Migration certificate from the Institute and university ( even paying after UPES Rs 17-18 lakhs INR ) and without offering students any degree or diploma certificates ( as per NEP 2020 rules, though students is in 8 th semester classes and payed full semester fees up to 8th semesters) or refunding back the full or even 8th semester fees the students or their guardian payed already to UPES. This is ridiculous</p><p>In 2017, this university was highly accused of charging exorbitant fees and not providing students with their promised facilities in their prospects . In addition, there have been reports of students being forced to take loans and facing financial difficulties due to their high fees, due to extending time period of students beyond their schedule time periods of academic session a student gets admitted him / her thus upes earning further huge amount of money from students who gets supplementary in say 14-16 subjects even after 7th semester and has to complete also projects/ internship for 8th semester. UPES SOD Dean or course coordinator, faculties was never helpful to solve this problem of students but they throttle the students in clever and dirty games that the situation becomes dreadful , nightmare both for students and his/ her parents. </p><p>Furthermore, the faculties at UPES' School of Design has also been a big cause for concern. Some few students have complained about the mental harassment/ mental trauma/ mental ragging by faculties even by the cluster Head of SOD Mrs jharna Joshi ,MDes (nift) and her some followers, so that students become physically ill , hypertensive getting Duodenal peptic ulcers, gets mentally traumatized , depressed , suffers from psychological chronic head ache, phobic to enter in department etc and the chairman of anti ragging committee there ,Dean SOD, Dean students welfare committee and others authorities like VC, Registrar ,COE, including honb . chancellor UPES- remain totally mummed on these issues even when they are informed of all these irregularities going on , officially by letters , (officially by emails, after e mails and also by received hard copies sent by registered post to them or by Speed Post of India post. None bothers to answer to student /guardian/ parents of students even. </p><p> Many faculties in SOD UPES including the present BDes Fashion Design course coordinator Mrs jharna Joshi herself are not experienced enough and are not even qualified faculty members according to UGC guidelines of 2022, Teachers eligibility criteria / for NEP 2020 gazette teachers qualification criteria and thus leading to a subpar learning experiences there. As a Professor and Head of a department (for the last 18 years, myself), I understand the importance of having competent and knowledgeable teachers, and UPES seems to be lacking in this aspect (0nly 46% teachers have PhD degrees in UPES). But perhaps the biggest issue with studying at UPES' School of Design is the lack of free flow working opportunities and environment for some few targeted Bengali students in the laboratory without permission of the Head of Department like in pattern ,cutting and stitching and asking students to redo & redo & redo one item by Mrs jharna Joshi to a student. unlike other renowned design schools in India, UPES may have ties with other global / Indian universities or companies for exchange programs or for internships of students in summer internship/ final year dissertation / projects in others expensive states but these are financially very costly to bear extra financial burden and have to be arranged by the students themselves or their parents in their 4th and 8th semesters. This severely limits the exposure and opportunities for students to gain practical experience and network with professionals in the industry. As someone who been in the education field for long years, I strongly advise students and their parents to steer clear of UPES' School of Design. The high cost, poor infrastructure, and lack of opportunities , not following UGC/ AICTE rules and regulations, mental ragging by the faculty and cluster Head make it a questionable choice for a degree in fashion design ,unless you are from a very rich family and want to ruin your bright career by getting yourself enrolled there. </p><p> In regards to examinations systems, of School of Design ,UPES, the semesters Examinations system they never followed UGC guideline and rules of appointment of minimum one external examiners from outside states of Uttarakhand institutions or two internal examiners for one external examiner from outside institute of UPES itself in every subjects of university at end semester or in supplementary examination (as per UGC guidelines and rules of examination clause 5, Para clause k & j of page 7&8 ( UGC ) stating both rules of UPES and of UGC for UG semester examinations, neither they have theoretical papers examinations from semesters 1 to semester 08 , except only in 02 during entire course in 2020-24 sessions after I complained and documented ). Moreover one internal examiner Mrs jharna Joshi is appointed always I found as the course coordinator , convener examiners, in all subjects as examiner( even besides her expertise in subjects she is appointed as examiner by the UPES board of studies) including project mentoring, who has no UGC recognized PhD degree in fashion design ( till date) and not even she possess either a BEd or TTE certificates ,as defined in UGC rules 2022/ NEP rules 2020 to be even Faculties in designation of Assistant Professor onwards and still she is appointed by the UPES as Associated professor,( how is that possible?) cluster head of department(?) , all in all in final decisions making of all examinations that which students will be declared as passed or who will be taken granted as failed ,even if those students get good percentage of attendance in classes and obtained good marks in internal assessment and prior to semester exam( jury) by others faculties there . some faculty declare under instruction of cluster Head whether that students will pass or will get plucked much previous to jury exam which means passing in exam are pre decided. UPES, COE doesn't publish or speaks a single word regarding marks obtained by a student in theory, in practical and in viva in subjects he or she appeared in jury( break up obtained Marks) , even though a student or his or her guardians want to know about division marks and the students obtained in each subjects failed ,to detect what are causes of multiple failures,where the defects of the students for his / her failures to rectify him/ her</p><p>Dean School of Design and UPES authorities never care to give in writing answers to multiple numbers emails or received multiple letters served to them from students/ student's official guardians, even to repeated served Demi Official letters to them, (addressing to Dean SOD UPES, Registrar, COE, VC , even to Chancellor of UPES , Dean of students welfare) , regarding ragging and grievance redressal committee officially and VC/ Registrar office does not even want to receive any complaint letters against them or their faculty members and Registrar himself threaten student/ guardian to ruin his/ her career if complain is done officially against all irregularities and against UPES faculties and he is to protect his faculty . </p><p>UGC by its order said private universities under UGC 12B,&22 & 2f must be maintained as per regulation of UGC act 2003 for establishment and maintenance of all standards for safeguarding students community in all possible ways and against commercialization of higher education in india and under para 3.7&3.8 of teaching learning process and in examinations system in UG/ PG and diploma courses .The policy of SOD in UPES is reversed to rules of UGC and is not found safeguarding students / students community interest and is just for huge profitable business with education and commercialization of higher education in the state of Uttarakhand from students of other states in India like from West Bengal</p><p>In conclusion, based on my years of experience in the higher education field in India, I strongly advise students and their parents to exercise Highest level caution when considering enrollment in UPES' School of Design specially from north east Indian states including from West Bengal even if you get chance there. The combination of very high cost, poor infrastructure, mental harassment, mentally traumatizing students, making repeated fails in many subjects in jury in semesters and very limited opportunities makes it a questionable choices for a degree in Fashion Design there in UPES Dehradun India </p><p>Instead, I encourage you to explore other reputable universities in India that offer Fashion Design courses at a much lower cost and provide better facilities. Do not let the glossy brochures and enticing promises of UPES sway you into a costly and regretful decision. School of Design, Bidhouli, Dehradoon, Uttarakhand, before enrollment your student for BDes course in fashion Design at least </p><p>Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya</p><p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsT6ALulXlKVy24Ubg08LkViCZnQK1ACnuBjxaa8JlsAidueTdW-9MqFJMzTDjDw4uuCTJPzcODrhVJZqX5cZjPDbvg2HtuRtCjNf9TTKdp6V2H56AS_XxOaOTOubwiNhNV-uE5nKRsOAJQIyG5wJ3EQLe8vYf9bV7DRfWbRAxVow6FadG-s7bwSV-gQg/s4080/20240313_143120.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="4080" data-original-width="3060" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsT6ALulXlKVy24Ubg08LkViCZnQK1ACnuBjxaa8JlsAidueTdW-9MqFJMzTDjDw4uuCTJPzcODrhVJZqX5cZjPDbvg2HtuRtCjNf9TTKdp6V2H56AS_XxOaOTOubwiNhNV-uE5nKRsOAJQIyG5wJ3EQLe8vYf9bV7DRfWbRAxVow6FadG-s7bwSV-gQg/s320/20240313_143120.jpg" width="240" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRFD6x0UCRffCw4iWr4UhddgXhvRSza4X4ah8G8zx9HIzCRcSP0RvguVcfgUCSKUGF8ppwxp9sX0j9-KnEGhPwAwh_-rsfvPwHTvLjGedrNE1UErfmDUVYpROjMPdz9j1Zj-0rxvr1RtKXPnn_ioRJ7EB4kET9_X0hPJo8aKj9boWEOq6jH-v1bg-pkao/s1600/Screenshot_20240223_133849_Adobe%20Acrobat.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRFD6x0UCRffCw4iWr4UhddgXhvRSza4X4ah8G8zx9HIzCRcSP0RvguVcfgUCSKUGF8ppwxp9sX0j9-KnEGhPwAwh_-rsfvPwHTvLjGedrNE1UErfmDUVYpROjMPdz9j1Zj-0rxvr1RtKXPnn_ioRJ7EB4kET9_X0hPJo8aKj9boWEOq6jH-v1bg-pkao/s320/Screenshot_20240223_133849_Adobe%20Acrobat.jpg" width="144" /></a></div><br /><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p>Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-2056286275498271072023-06-18T01:27:00.000-07:002023-06-18T01:27:03.643-07:00Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; : In UPES School Of Design yours and your parents' ...<a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2023/06/in-upes-school-of-design-yours-and-your.html?spref=bl">Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; : In UPES School Of Design yours and your parents' ...</a>: In UPES School Of Design Derhadoon india yours and your parents' dream to make you a fashion designer or designer with BDes degree...Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-81729236233953240502023-06-18T01:24:00.007-07:002024-02-26T04:19:43.280-08:00 In UPES School Of Design yours and your parents' dream to make you a fashion designer or designer with BDes degree or MDes degree will turn into a nightmare for both you and your parents. <p> <span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space-collapse: preserve;"> </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">In <a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank">UPES ( University of Petroleum and Energy studies) ,School Of Design, Dehradun, India , your's and your parents' dream to make you a Fashion Designer or a Designer with a B.Des degree ( four years honors B.Des) or M.Des or integrated MDes degree will ultimately turn into a big nightmare for both you and your parents. </a> So My Advice to all students in India Specially of West Bengal " don't get yourself admitted ever in UPES" . </span></p><div><br /></div>Author of this article is<br /><br /><div><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank">https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145</a><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" rel="nofollow">PROFESSOR DR. PRANAB KUMAR BHATTACHARYA MD ( university of Calcutta ) FIC Path & Retired WBMES CADRE OFFICER OF HEALTH DEPARTMENT,GOVT OF WEST BENGAL( Retired)</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" rel="nofollow">His Designation was-:</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" rel="nofollow"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"> Retired Professor </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">and Head of Pathology Department, Academic building, 2nd floor, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space-collapse: preserve;">108,C.R.Avenue, Kolkata -700073, West Bengal, india ,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Department of Health and Family Welfare (WBMES wing) of Government of West Bengal, now pensioners of government of West Bengal </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" rel="nofollow"><br /></a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" rel="nofollow">(Equivalent officiating Rank and with executive power when retired -: "Special Secretary " to the Government of WestBengal)</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" rel="nofollow"><br /></a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" rel="nofollow">Ex- Principal/ Dean of JMN Medical College, JMN Educational and Research Foundation, uttarpanchpota, Chakdaha, District- Nadia ,West Bengal, India, pin 741222- a UG Medical College under Public Private partnership model of Health Department ,Government of West Bengal (under 1rsr letter of permission from Na</a>tional Medical council and affiliated with WBUHS)</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 14.6667px; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Ex </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Professor and Head of Pathology Department,</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">JIS School of Medical Sciences and Research ( under JIS University , Nilgange, Agarpara, 24 parganas North ) jagancha </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space-collapse: preserve;">santragachi, Howrah District, West Bengal pin 7111302</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space-collapse: preserve;">A</span> <span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space-collapse: preserve;">UG Medical College under public private partnership model of Health department( WBMES wing) Government of West Bengal under 1rst letter of permission from National Medical council under </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space-collapse: preserve;">affiliated with JIS university </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium; white-space-collapse: preserve;">At Present his designation- (since 19.12.23 to till date ):.</span></p><span style="font-size: medium;">Principal and Dean Krisnanagar institute of Medical Sciences( KIMS) ,Krisnanagar city, West Bengal India </span><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Email profpkb@yahoo.co.in</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">whatsapp & mobile -: 9231510435</span></p><div><br /></div><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank">Advice to students and parents of West Bengal state and of other states in India <br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">My sincere advice to all aspirant students of West Bengal state of India, who are or will be dreaming , dreaming to Pursue/ study Bachelor of Design course (BDes ) at University of Petroleum and Energy Studies ( called popularly as UPES at address bidhouli, Dehradun, India -) as a retired ,39 years long experienced National Medical Commissions' , Ministry of Health New Delhi ( NMC) recognized a Post Graduate and Doctoral level teacher, in Designation of Professor and Head of Pathology departments in the WBMES cadre officers of government of West Bengal, at various top ranking Medical colleges in the West Bengal state; b) as an Ex and present Principal /Dean of a Medical College under Letter of permission from NMC New Delhi ; c) as the retired "ex officio special secretary to government of West Bengal" and d) as Ex Members Secretary, and Member of Board of Studies of West Bengal University of Health Sciences kolkata( a UGC recognised university under section 2(f) and NMC recognised university that </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">,1) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Don't ever opt for UPES, School of Design ( SOD) B Des courses (at least BDES for fashion design ) or M Des courses at least students who are dreaming to be degree- holder fashion designer from the West Bengal state. of India after your HS -This is a honest advice to students of the state of West Bengal of a 68 + years old academician and ex administrator and for long years Professor in pathology in State of West Bengal </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank"> The UPES as University, though it is a recognized University by the University Grants commission or UGC</a> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank">( UPES recognition letter came in the year 2004 and no further inspection was probably conducted from the UGC ,through application to UGC by the UPES ) under UGC section 22A, and </a></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank">2 (f) ( but without any government financial aid) of 1956 UGC act, it doesn't probably follow any rules and regulations or guidelines of UGC ( so far this blogger's knowledge is now ) regarding its students class attendance system , as per UGC norms in the hard copies roll call recording systems in a roll call book/ register book within class by teachers itself signed by teachers or by the CCTV recording system while classes are on or by log book for practical classes (rather UPES SOD has its peculiar own class attendance system of punching students identity card issued by university authorities, in a departmental machine (called biometric attendance system that are meant by UGC for only teachers and staffs by UGC letters to all universities under it ) , The biometric machine which remain/ may remain either defective, may remain non-functional for some days in any months, or a student may not be habituated expertise to punch his or her identity cards effectively or the Card may be lost and thus biometric attendance of students may show any of you students absent from classes and it may results deficiency in required classes attendance percentage for end semester, barring you students to appear in regular university end semesters examination ( if and when a student attendance is less than 75% in general cases or with a medical certificate less than 67% as per their notices ) and make one student marked "F" / Repeat ie failed and make her / him bound to appear in supplementary examinations system with further payment of examination fees (presently of Rs 3500 for each subjects marked" F at present ) in each end semester results declared. UPES SOD do not also follow UGC rules and regulations in university end semesters examinations system too ( UPES has its own peculiar regulations /guidelines for University end semester exam's and also in their own evaluation system of declaration of each end semesters results and in supplementary exam & no body ever knows whether that very their own examination rules and regulation which is being followed there, is approved by the UGC./ NACC/ NIRF at all or not and they remain always silent or Mummed with that very question when asked officially in writing by students parents), in theirs faculty recruitment and faculties promotion system, ( as per UGC guidelines 2022 of teachers eligibility qualification criteria) .The cluster HOD of fashion Design of School Of Design is a cluster HOD (who is just holding M Des degree from NIFT, without any UGC /AICTE recognized PhD degree- surprisingly how she became an Associate Professor and cluster HOD co Ordinator of university semester examination system for more than three times successively and surprisingly seems to be "all in all" in Power in SOD including are appointed as convener examiners in all semesters of B Des, M Des and integrated M Des course in UPES ) and some faculty, including present cluster HOD may be in real vindictive moods or in constant harassments attitudes towards some few/ some ones students from West Bengal state and make students from West Bengal often harasser using some times very rude behavior, some times using abusing, insulting words, making student (him or her) mentally high level tortured, harrassed, even not allowing to use laboratory works to complete practical ,projects of university semesters , make you students getting plucked and plucked and plucked in semester exams from 3rd semester onwards in multiple numbers subjects ( say total 14/ 15 subjects in 3rd, 4th 5th and 6th and seventh semesters, even in those subjects you have above 60 % even 83% class attendance in their biometric attendance system and you secured good percentage marks in your internal assessments by other faculties and the same HOD who takes all decisions alone regarding a student's fate in successful passing or getting supplementary, re supplementary, re re supplementary , put them in several times repeated supplementary and supplementary examination in many subjects in almost all end semesters (This is based on HOD notion and mood on a particular student ). Often HODs and faculties don't co operate with students to finish students schedule works in time. These are just to earn money from students / students parents with an dirty ulterior motive not to complete student his/ her course in sessions scheduled due time and forces students for extending times </a>and years to earn more money and money </span><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space-collapse: preserve;" target="_blank">beyond schedule sessions period for further deposit of tuition fees and other fees ( almost Rs 4.1 lakh yearly or more in two semesters in a year ie in two semesters in a year ) , often she causes mental ragging to a targeted student by HOD or faculty if you are most obedient , very honest ,perfect and remain timid and respectful in your nature which most Bengal students are .They do all these verbally without keeping any proof or not allowing you to take proof or record </a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><u><span style="color: red;">The UPES is thus May be considered as a worst private university at Derhadun, in India and school of Design under UPES is an design institution just to generate revenue for UPES authorities and nothing else. It's management is too poor.It's ranking 79 by NIRF government of India, but that ranking is not for school of Design at all</span></u> </p><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">In The UPES, university end semester examinations sem 1- to sem 8 ( they call it Jury ) controller of examination (COE ) office UPES d</span></a>id never </p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">apoointed <a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;">any external examiners as per UGC guidelines and rules in subjects concerned examination (practical and viva exams. There is no theoretical papers in B des Fashion Design course ) from recognized institution of outside Uttarakhand state or instead of outside state externals, do not even appoint two recognized internal examiners from others institutions of Uttarakhand State ( externals are highly necessary to make an unbiased results for students ) and here decision of the cluster Head of School of Design is final decision one there in all eight university semesters exams, in all subjects ,( how is it possible beyond any ones understanding through out world ) regarding a students fate for passing in grade A+ to C + or fail ( marked F or Repeat) and no other examiners often appointed from same department by COE office has probably any say over the HOD while in computation of results in final sheet ( how is that possible no one of UPES authority cares?? )and even if review of Marked "F "subjects papers in semester results are applied for by the students or parents or guardian on behalf of students with payment (if applied with INR Rs 250 for each subjects reviewed) it is conducted by the same examiners of the same institute by COE office, declared officially by COE under his or her seal </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt;">( which are against UGC guidelines for examination and in review system of papers) and after reviewing marks remaining mostly unchanged to maximum number of students applied for review and in one or two cases students who once was marked "F" failed gets A+ grade(?) or A grade or B grade and that is also limited up to 2nd semester students .Rest remaining unchanged. Then why is review mechanism exist? Just To earn money from students??</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"> IN UPES a Master degree holder how can be promoted to Rank above Demonstrator or Tutor (without recognized PhD ( may be he/she completing PhD) as per UGC teachers eligibility criteria 2022 and even thesis /project guide or co oridinator of university Examiner?</p><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank">The respectable only Professor in SOD & Principal or Dean of School of Design UPES Dehradun, Honb Vice Chancellor of UPES, The Registrar of UPES or The COE of UPES or even the chancellor of UPES don't bother to give ever any official reply or answers of students or their guardian / parents' official written complain / grievances email or letters even if your guardian / parents send multiple official e-mails with documents attached there or post hard copies of grievances with attached documents by registered Post or by courier post received by them or submit their complain under seal of receipt of UPES ; even if yours guardian/ parents' complain or grievances e mail / letter are sent as" Demi Official letters "from your guardian/ parents high ex- government officials ranks or present ranks ( may be Govt ranking and designation , may be semi govt ranking and designation of government or semi government or may be from others most respectable civil official designation/ rank or as parents of students or as guardian) they though receive letter, don't respond verbally or officially, even they don't pick up yours or yours parents or guardian telephonic calls for any discussion on any issues against them. They try to put all blames on shoulder of students if you ask officially why such irregularities or vindictive attitude towards the students goes on there and why multiple time fails in the subjects happen and they just hide their own faculties fault , rather becomes much vindictive towards the students by making him or her repeated failure in university semester exam . They forget that students parents are paying huge money ( almost 17-18lacks INR for BDes fashion design degree to purchase from a private universities and they are vender for it and students parents are consumer of final product the graduation certificate in schedule sessions period and the students and his or her guardian are paying to UPES university not the school of Design authority </a> students and their parents can easily go to consumer court asking for compensation even ,as it is a private University and degree are being purchased with huge money. Students parents may move to court of law for RTI, may move to human rights commission and all accreditation authorities of UPES university and school of Design at UPES </span></p><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank">The UPES account office sent students or students parents or guardian by email Letters for payment only their semesters fees, tuition fees, examination fees other fees in time and computer generated receipts of money</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank">A totally business private university UPES is </a>. at least the school of Design </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank"><br /></a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank">Please remember In UPES, SOD your and yours parents dream to make you a fashion designer with a BDes degree or MDes degree will turn ultimately a nightmare for both you and your parents. </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><a href="https://ask.shiksha.com/i-want-to-know-about-the-latest-cutoff-information-for-b-des-in-fashion-design-at-upes-school-of-design-qna-6865145" target="_blank">So my advice to you the students from West Bengal to pursue your BDes carrier in Kolkata based colleges like in NIFT , in institution of ministry of textiles colleges, and if from private one ie from Amity University of Kolkata or SNU where complete course fees are less than 8 lacks never go outside West Bengal like in ARCH, Pearl , UPES etc to ruin your career and money finally. It is better to persue general stream honors courses and masters degree from Kolkata colleges than to move to outer states in India </a>for being designer or fashion designer</span></p><br /><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">The authority of UGC, AICTE, NACC NIRF etc must re check the faculties credibility, degrees, teaching experiences, to become at all a valid faculties there without any UGC/AICTE recognized PhD degree as per UGC guidelines of 2022, to become even lecturer and next promotion of faculties and university semester examination systems, examiners selection system, teaching learning system, theory practical viva system, infrastructures etc before giving recognitions to courses of UPES Dehradun, bidhouli , Uttarakhand </span><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-44241391962300612032023-04-08T08:11:00.002-07:002023-04-21T00:14:27.586-07:00Microfinance Companies In India Are Not At All A Blessings It Is Rather A Big Curse, It Should Be Stopped Immediately By Law<a href="https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-10805-microfinance-companies-in-india-are-not-at-all-a-blessings-it-is-rather-a-big-curse-it-should-be-stopped-immediately-by-law.html">Microfinance Companies In India Are Not At All A Blessings It Is Rather A Big Curse, It Should Be Stopped Im</a><div><br /></div><div>This article already published <div><br /></div><div>1) Published in Elsevier SSRN group journals under URL </div><div><br /></div><div>https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4412233</div><div><br /></div><div>And in E journal of Legal services india.com </div><div><br /></div><div>2https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-10805-microfinance-companies-in-india-are-not-at-all-a-blessings-it-is-rather-a-big-curse-it-should-be-stopped-immediately-by-law.htmlmediately<a href="https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-10805-microfinance-companies-in-india-are-not-at-all-a-blessings-it-is-rather-a-big-curse-it-should-be-stopped-immediately-by-law.html">By Law</a></div></div>Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-28637964407439356922023-03-30T06:34:00.001-07:002023-04-08T08:19:04.678-07:00Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; : MICROFINANCE AND NON BANKING FINANCIAL COMPANIES I...<a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2023/03/microfinance-and-non-banking-financial.html?spref=bl">Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; : MICROFINANCE AND NON BANKING FINANCIAL COMPANIES I...</a>: <div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-10805-microfinance-companies-in-india-are-not-at-all-a-blessings-it-is-rather-a-big-curse-it-should-be-stopped-immediately-by-law.html" target="_blank">MICROFINANCE AND NON BANKING FINANCIAL COMPANIES IN INDIA ARE NOT AT ALL A BLESSINGS, IT IS RATHER A BIG CRUSE. IT SHOULD BE STOPPED IM...</a></div>Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-44665368315184550972023-03-30T06:32:00.009-07:002023-04-21T00:13:03.285-07:00MICROFINANCE AND NON BANKING FINANCIAL COMPANIES IN INDIA ARE NOT AT ALL A BLESSINGS, IT IS RATHER A BIG CRUSE. IT SHOULD BE STOPPED IMMEDIATELY BY LAW <p> </p><br id="docs-internal-guid-40ad84e2-7fff-93fb-998f-e4c365655be2" /><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-10805-microfinance-companies-in-india-are-not-at-all-a-blessings-it-is-rather-a-big-curse-it-should-be-stopped-immediately-by-law.html" target="_blank">MICROFINANCE AND NON BANKING FINANCIAL COMPANIES IN INDIA ARE NOT AT ALL A BLESSINGS, IT IS RATHER A BIG CRUSE. IT SHOULD BE STOPPED IMMEDIATELY BY LAW </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Author</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">-:</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">MD (University of Calcutta) Fic Path , WBMES (retired)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ex Retired Professor and Head, Dept. of Pathology department, Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, 108,C.R.Avenue, Kolkata -700073, West Bengal, india</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Department of Health and Family Welfare (WBMES wing)Government of West Bengal </span><span style="color: red; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Equivalent officiating Rank retired -: "Special Secretary " to the Government of West Bengal</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ex- Principal of JMN Medical College, JMN Educational and Research Foundation, Chakdaha, District- Ranaghat ,West Bengal India </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">At present - (since 6.02.2023): Posted as </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Professor and Head of Pathology Department ( every year renewal contractual but full time),</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">JIS School of Medical Sciences and Research ( under JIS University , Nilgange, Agarpara, 24 parganas North )</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; white-space: pre-wrap;">santragachi, Howrah District, West Bengal</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Residence</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">-:</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Mahamaya apartment, Block -B, flat 3, 2nd floor ,Mahamayatala, 54 NSC Bose Road, Post office- Garia , Kolkata 700084, West Bengal india</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Email </span><a href="mailto:profpkb@yahoo.co.in" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">profpkb@yahoo.co.in</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">( mostly used) </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="mailto:prof.pranab@Gmail.com" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">prof.pranab@Gmail.com</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">whatsapp & mobile -: 9231510435.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This article already published </span></p>1) Published in Elsevier SSRN group journals under URL <br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4412233</p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">And in E journal of Legal services india.com </p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">2https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-10805-microfinance-companies-in-india-are-not-at-all-a-blessings-it-is-rather-a-big-curse-it-should-be-stopped-immediately-by-law.html</p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">MICROFINANCE was once meant to lift people (basically women) to bring out of poverty, but many women ultimately saying today , it's become rather a curse for their life , Wolf for many indian citizens, specially for poors, economically week sections citizens ,( illiterate , semi illiterate people, job less people, small/ smallest scale business enterprise people,marginal firmers, marginal people, small grocery shopkeepers and for startup small business people, street hawkers , daily wage labourers, small traders ) and they must be much more cautious about evil effects of accepting / taking any microfinance loans personally or and on gosthi basis any usurious private loans from various Financial NGOs, companies, Non Banking Financial corporation ( NBFC) / organisation/ any usurious private loan providers companies ( registered under company act 1956 or on section 8 of 2013 company acts ) who don't possess proper Reserve Bank of India's ( RBI) permission papers for doing money lending business in any state of India including in West Bengal as like "Bandhan Bank" in West Bengal ,"Ashirbad Microfinance Ltd , "Nigam Sudha Microfinance Ltd " ,"Progoti Microfinance company Ltd," " Lokenath Trusts", "Dishari', "Swayam Krishi Sanstha" ,"Janalakshmi Financial Services", "Ujjivan", "Adani Financial Services", "Small Finance Bank", "Utkarsh Small Finance Bank", "Arohan Financial Services", "Fusion Microfinance", "Equitas", "Small Finance Bank", "Grameen Koota Financial Services", "UGRO Financial Services". "ASA international India microfinance Ltd ", "Sarala" ,"Mohor, "SKS Microfinance Ltd", "Village", "Share Microfinance" "Annapurna Finance" ," SKS microfinance, Utkarsha small finance Bank ' ,etc etc for some examples ( there are about 96 or more Microfinance institutions operating in India and 35,473 NBFC companies in India with or without RBI permission to carry on money lenders business as up to 2013 records and 46 MFI companies working in state of West Bengal ) and many such MFI / NBFC are operating presently in the West Bengal State of India and in other provinces of India too. Microfinance institutions or MFI can be set up with minimum Rs 5 cores capital ( to be deposited with RBI) and they can lend money when one borrower's household annual income is maximum from Rs 1,20,000 to Rs 300,000 INR and maximum limit of such loans must be 50% of monthly household income once ,as per Reserve Bank of India guideline 1st April 2022 ( memo no DoR.FIN.REC.95/03.10.038/2021-22 dated 14.03.2022) and interest rate must not be more than 20% per year ( ie if a borrower take Rs 20,000/ as loan, he or she will pay monthly Rs 970/ in 24 instalments including both Principal amount and interest amount loan as per annexure II of para 6.3 of RBI guidelines order dated 14.03.2022, mentioned above ) and they must have licence from RBI as permission to operate as non Banking money lenders. MFI or microlenders may take loans from Nationalised Bank and they pay 14% maximum interest for their loan per year. Those money lenders, either MFI or NBFI companies or usurious private money lenders are illegal by Indian laws ( without RBI permission or registration and not following RBI guidelines) and to be informed to local police by General Diary or by FIR if operating in a local area Village by villagers or by person who takes such illegal loan from them . </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Since 2017 onwards,Microfinance companies without RBI licence are mushrooming in West Bengal state (in urban areas, semi urbans,in rural villages) , putting poor and marginal people in life long distress and trouble, damage, irreparable loss to family providing them loan ( say for 50,000/INR a time ) but with huge illegal percentage interests on weekly or monthly basis ( interest rate of MFI/ NBFC microlenders varies from 30% to 200% yearly ,or weekly or monthly instead of yearly and that the Indian laws does not ever permitted such illegal money lending to any borrowers with that very high interest charge beyond RBI guided interest level ( less than 20% yearly interest maximum for registered MFIs ) for microfinance company ( on yearly basis but never on weekly or monthly basis ) Maximum Microfinance companies have thus today mutated ''to become rather big exploiters of man and woman in society to make their cores and cores of money as their profit, exploiting poor of the poor by their usurious interest rates, providing multiple loans through gosthi ( collection of poor women or men in a group ) given to a borrower without due diligence, lack of transparency, RBI regulation and use of coercive methods for recovery by threats, creating nuisance in front of house, or filing court suits as a frauds or a defaulter or not following their company conditions of loan repayment" ( as per RBI rules 2022, all Recovery Agents ( RA) must fullfill the laid down criteria stated in clause 7.5.1 to 7.5.5 along with local police verification identity and permission for recovery of loan from borrowers and other wise thet can not be appointed as field workers or RA) . They often get signed borrowers with their husband in white paper as their company documents and a notebook of taking and paying loan , kept with them( but never with borrowers). Thus a borrower never knows how much of the principal loan and how much of principal and interest they cleared of their taken loan and they are in loan debt trapped . </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In my opinion ,and in many civilised conscious people opinions , these all microfinance companies are really a big curse toward poor socioeconomic class people who are/ were however in need of cash money to run or to help their family' for emergency medical treatment, to run a small business, from where they earned their previous livelihood,and they took loan under toughest situation, they faced during COVID -19 periods of State/ pan India lockdown ,they were bound of taking loan with very high percentage of weekly interest personally or through forming gosthi of 25/ 40 illiterate or semi illiterate married women and poor men or to those and these company' s salaried field agents or dalal completely misguided these needy people or their less educated/ less intelligent wives , children (whose house men lost their service and or faced loss in their small business or in cultivation during the covid pandemic period of 2019 November to 2022 December or experienced loss in the business and cultivation) about the false benefit of microfinance or gosthi loans. These microfinance companies thus making lured to these people of urban, suburban, villages people of West Bengal/ india to take easy loan with very high unusual interest rate (>25% to 35% yearly and 120% to 200% monthly interest rate by usurious money lenders (reference no 5 ) and when covid 19 is now almost over in 2023, market opened ,these microfinance companies salaried people/ Recovery agents/ Dalal kicking doors giving huge pressure, threatens to persons/ family members who took loan ( borrowers) from their companies by himself/ or by herself name ( later bounded to draw loans in names of others members ie within gosthi peoples) and then from outside loan providers and as a result it became vicious cycle for them to take continuous loans after loans from neighbours and these people are moving around paying interests of such loans only but never the principal amount of loan they borrowed . Ultimately they are selling all their minor assets including wedding gold , even utensils and facing domestic violences etc " …I had to sell off my wedding ornaments, my 20 years old unmarried daughter's gold ornaments, keeping on taking loans after loan to pay only interest part from one to another private money lenders to clear up my MFI loan interest- Mrs Swapna Bhattacharya -wife of Ritwick Bhattacharya - a married 48 years old women,- mother of a 20 years old daughter, a woman borrower of residence- Purbapalli Village , Post office- Sodepur , District -24 parganas (north ) ,PS -Khardha,Kolkata -110, says me with a sad smile and next bursting into tears . " ….I had to take microfinance loan ( RS 60,000/INR) first from Bandhan Bank , then from Ashirwad Microfinance Ltd , first time in 2019 Oct with only knowledge of my husband Ritwik, but others members of my in laws family were in total darkness, after being members of a ( 22 married women group) gosthi of our locality "Bankimpally " at, Sodepur ,under Panihati municipality constituency ,being lured for easy to get loans and being highly convinced by field agent's of Bandhan Bank and Ashirwad Microfinance Ltd in sodepur and khardah, panihati and by gosthi members, to feed and for medical treatment purpose of my 84 years old mother ( Mrs Shanti Adhikari ,wife of late Anil Adhikari, who is living alone ) and to support and look after my two younger sister's (Savita Chakraborty wife of krishnendu chakrabarty & Bandana Dey wife of late Raju Dey ) family, during lock down periods of COVID- 19 ( 2019 -22) and to meet up MFI company's interest, i had to borrow loan successively from Mr. Tapan Saha of Loknath Trust ,Mr . Chandan Saha of Nigam Sudha Microfinance Trust , Unity Welfare Society , Progoti , Beraberi Deshari, jiban Utthan Microfinance Ltd operating ( I didn't knew that these MFI / NBFC companies / usurious money lenders are illegal money lenders companies by laws without RBI permission to operate in field ) operating in Sodepur , 24 parganas( north) ,Kolkata-110, West Bengal. I am now a debt trapped woman of around Rs 14 lakh INR . My husband Ritwik Bhattacharya of same address with B.Com ( Calcutta University) degree ,50 years old ( he suffered in 1999 to 2005 from bipolar psychiatric illnesses- schizoid bipolar mood disorders and was treated at Institute of Psychiatry at SSKM hospital Kolkata -20, with antipsychotics drugs lithium,risperidone , valproate, SSRI drugs by his eldest MD doctor brother ) also was trapped and did loan from others non financial banking companies/ organisation when in 2020-2021 his small trade a start up business units ( within our home premises as his rehabilitation program -once set by his eldest doctor brother for him to sustain our life and to get him engaged in working) run in losses during the COVID -19 pan and partial lockdown period in 2020 March to 2022 October and he had to pay salaries and bonus to his four marginal labours in lock down and compensation money settlement to a labour for loss of part of his index finger in a sudden machine accident, etc, though he could not sell his finished products in local markets for covid 19 lockdown and his loan status to these NBFC companies now reached to another Rs 10 lakh ( as he stopped EMI since 2020 and now he has been summoned by court of laws for a settlement on 20th March 2023 ) . We both are now in great financial trouble for MFI and NBFC loans as their recovery agents and recovery field workers are almost daily knocking the door and we became ill doing overworking both day and night times since October 2022 to repay the loan . What I realised now that we did a great blunder in our life ,trusting the field agents of Bandhan Bank and Ashirbad microfinance ltd trusting that Microfinance loans are helping for empowerment of poor women and their families . Rather it is a big curse for poor fami</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">lies</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. I had to sell our kitchen utensils , all machines Ritwick purchased for his business and sometimes I had to deny our food for days, unless we had some kind of monthly financial support of Rs 23,000/ per month from my husband's eldest brother-, a MD Pathology doctor by his profession ( now a WB state govt. pension holder ) to feed us by sending his bank interest part of money ( he had as his superannuation benefits in march 2021), to sustain our life , so that we can make these loan repayments …." . </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">And I had to steal average rupees 8000, to 10,000 since 2020 onwards even from his sent money too, to pay up interest to personal private money lenders through my sister's , without knowledge of any one in my in-laws house. A great sin i had to do to meet up loan interest </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">There are many such stories ( at least 54 studied cases by this author) with me in Kolkata, Howrah , Coach Bihar ,Nadia, North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Murshidabad ( ref no 12) , Nadia, Jalpaiguri districts of West Bengal state . </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Microfinance was once meant to lift up people out of poverty, but the women of Howrah, ( in Shibpur Constituency ( ref no 3) ,in Panihati constituency, in Beldanga Village of East Burdwan ( reference no 10) say it's become now a big curse for many families even of entire village , who are in microfinance or NBFC debt Trap </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This city, West Bengal, has been overrun by loan agents/ field workers from India's illegal Microfinance or NBFC industries . In the real world ,instead of women getting empowered MFI are causing them in life trouble from microfinance companies, because there is no system of finding out whether beneficiaries have also taken loans from other MIF institutes or private usurious loans to clear up their loans. So the borrower goes on taking loans after loans from one institute to others or from personal/ private illegal usurious money lenders with very high interest.They are bound to do that. Then they are falling into severe debt traps of 15 to 20 lakhs for say only 1.2 lakh / INR loan from a microfinance company from Ashirbad or Bandhan Bank . This author have personally seen some people changing their addresses overnight, absconded, attempting suicide by various means , selling their all properties to get rid of these debts .He saw microfinance loans are root cause of domestic violence between husband and wife also . The microfinance companies give loans mostly to married women. Most of the married women must be at loggerheads with their husbands to repay the loans. This gives rise to domestic violences and injury, even head injuries . </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> From the study at grass-root level , this author personally felt that very few people had actually benefited from this initiative of microfinance loan in the Indian context . It is rather few trillion dollar business of companies based on poor families of india who needs cash money </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Below are a few examples of what happened for microfinance loans that destroyed families. Most of these microfinance companies are not however licensed or registered or have permission under Reserve Bank of India for operating their business in a state which is mandatory ( except Recently Utkarsha microfinance , Bandhan Bank after deposition of 500 crores. Bandhan however started its business with 2 lakh INR and three staff in 2009 as a small MFI unit and now owner of 10 thousands of crores INR loan and where from that huge profits came to Bandhan Bank owner Mr Chandra shekhar Ghosh? ) and doing all illegal transactions of money with NGO licence or NBFC licences under section 8 of company act 2013 or under 1956 company act which do not permit for money lending business in India.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">West Bengal is one of the top five states in India in terms of the gross loan portfolio and out of ten districts with high amount of loans, nine—North 24 Parganas , South 24 Parganas, Murshidabad, Jalpaiguri, Nadia, Bardhhaman, Hooghly, Howrah and Cooch Behar— are from West Bengal where these microfinance companies operate through their salaried feild people or agents field workers , targeting illiterate semi literate poor married women of any locality in the name of social or families welfare women empowerment women upliftment with their loan through a gosthi system of 12/25/40 women.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">According to a report published in Business Standard, “In its state-wise ticket size and macroeconomics analysis, the agency said it has observed that the average outstanding per unique borrower is the highest in States of West Bengal and Assam, and this has been the case at least for the past three years (2019-2023)”. It also reports that “40-50 per cent of the microfinance loan portfolio in both Assam and West Bengal are from one or two institutions. (sic, Bandhan, Ashirbad )” And it indicates the monopoly of 2/ or 3 institutions in the microfinance sectors.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Tamil Nadu State has displaced West Bengal to emerge as the largest State in terms of the outstanding profit portfolio of microfinance loans. According to MFIN Micrometer Q4 of FY 2021-22, a quarterly report published by Microfinance Institutions Network (MFIN), the gross loan portfolio (GLP) of Tamil Nadu was as of March 31, 2022 stood at ₹36,806 crore. It was followed by Bihar (₹35,941 crore) and West Bengal (₹34,016 crore). At the end of Q3 of FY2022, West Bengal topped the chart with the highest outstanding profit portfolio of loans at ₹32,880 crore, followed by Tamil Nadu (₹32,359 crore).</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The top 10 States (based on total microcredit universe) constituted 82.4 per cent of total GLP of the industry. West Bengal was followed by Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra. According to the report, around 64 per cent of the microfinance portfolio is concentrated in the East, Northeast, and Southern regions of India.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The 41st issue of the Micrometer report said the microfinance industry served 5.8 crore unique borrowers, through 11.3 crore loan accounts. The overall microfinance industry has a total GLP of ₹2,85,441 crore as of March 31, 2022, an increase of 10 per cent year-on-year (YoY) from ₹2,59,377 crore as of March 31, 2021. </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Lender-wise distribution of microfinance loan-:</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Lender-wise distribution of micro-loans shows that 12 banks held the largest share of the portfolio in micro-credit with a total loan outstanding of ₹1,14,051 crore, or 40 per cent of the total microcredit universe. NBFC-MFIs are the second largest providers of micro-credit with a loan amount outstanding of ₹1,00,407 crore, accounting for 35.2 per cent of the total industry portfolio. Small finance banks (SFBs) have a total loan amount outstanding of ₹48,314 crore, accounting for 16.9 per cent, followed by non-banking finance companies (NBFCs) at 6.9 per cent share. Other MFIs account for 1 per cent of the universe. </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The report noted that the proportion of NBFC-MFI portfolios in the universe portfolio increased by 4.1 per cent to 35.2 per cent as of March 31, 2022, though banks continued to be the main contributors. The geographical distribution of the portfolio also witnessed a change with a decrease in the share of the east and northeast region of India by 3.3 per cent, while the share of the south and north regions increased by 1.3 per cent each.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“The microfinance industry has shown good progress during Q4 of FY2022, building on the momentum profit created in Q3. The portfolio quality has improved significantly as compared to the end of Q1 FY2022, when the second wave of Covid-19 had caused widespread stress across the country,” Alok Misra, CEO & Director, MFIN said, in a statement. “The announcement of harmonised regulations for microfinance, near normalisation of collection efficiency and recent verdict of the Supreme Court stating that NBFC regulation is under the sole purview of the RBI are hugely positive trends, which will see good growth in 22-23,” he added. </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Several previous studies conducted all over the world concluded, where microfinance has been applied, showed that microfinance companies' microcredit loan was not as effective as it was expected in getting poor people and their families out of poverty . Rather it submerged many family members in tremendous financial curse and destroyed families who took MFI/ NBFC / private loans . According to the American Economic journal: applied economics; microfinance benefits were rather oversold to the public in relation to their risks, in India, Bangladesh. The research on psycho-social impact on microfinance was not given however enough attention, instead the get out of poverty quickly get a loan to run a small business project was overemphasised, such that negative repercussions of MIF loans were unforeseen.Therefore according to this author microfinance seems to benefit more to the givers of loan ( ie owner of the MIF companies) than to the receivers or borrowers . Many people who have evaluated the impact of microfinance have based it on( ?)financial success , not its social, familial and psychological impact i.e. the pressure of work individuals are under to ensure they pay back the interest of loan. Not enough assessment is done to ensure balance in recovery as it undermines emotional trauma and pressure. Introduction of debt to those with a stable income is such a burden; now imagine introducing debt to vulnerable, overwhelmed individuals facing masses of challenges such as food security and uncertainty. The impact can only be estimated as devastating.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">If this author looks back at past in 2010s in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh districts 30 to 45 pepole committed suicide due to microfinance loans, due to coercive method of repayment of microfinance loan by MFI .These suicide were reported from different districts of Andhra Pradesh within 45 days from January 2010 . The story was that MFI companies charged exorbitant interest on the principal amount and borrowers were caught in a situation where they were forced to borrow from another money lender to repay the existing loan . The borrowers were caught in vicious cycle of loans which they can not repay this forcing them to end their life (Ref no 11)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">From West Bengal,in 2021, Mr Sadhan Sinha 40 years old (who used to earn Rs 15000 to 2000 a month) of Bindupara Village of Murshidabad District ,West Bengal ( Ref no 4, 6) is another victim example in 2021. He took a loan of Rs 1 lakh from a MIF operating in murshidabad and had been unable to pay his monthly instalments of Rs 3,400 for May and June 2021 and he begged for a few days’ time but recovery agents did not listen. The recovery agents sat down outside the house, using abusive languages and saying they would not leave without collecting the dues. "...My husband felt so humiliated that he killed himself…,” said weeping Mamoni, mother of two sons, aged 18 and 15.( Ref no 12) Sadhan’s decision to take the loan in January 2021 and his subsequent suicide underline the fact that how millions of ordinary Indians were taken unawares by the covid- 19 pandemic’s second wave, blamed partly on the central government’s short-sightedness in prematurely declaring victory over the virus and letting its guard down.The Reserve Bank of India however tried to give all kinds of loan borrowers relief by instructing all banks and all financial institutions to consider a debt recasting, provided EMI dues have been cleared before February 2020 ie before the first state or pan India lock down anounced for COVID-19 by government. But, as Mr Sadhan’s death suggests, not every borrower had access to the relief by these MFIs companies, only because of lack of knowledge and information ,as they are mostly less educated and poor people. While the debt recasting is a prerogative of banks or the micro finance companies or NBFCs , the problem is that most people who are in dire need of the facility don’t know about RBI directions on this issues </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">There was relief to those borrowers who had opted for loan payment restructuring under the RBI scheme as well. The RBI permitted the MFIs ,NBFCs ,Banks and to all lending entities to modify the plans of repayment of loans and increase the moratorium period minimum by another minimum two years with minimum EMI .The RBI said that after all MFI,NBFC banks ,receive a restructuring proposal from any borrower to repay principal loan, they must have to take a decision on the application of borrowers within 30 days and in favour of borrowers. This will happen when the lending institutions and the borrower will agree to work out a resolution plan according to the capacity of borrowers to repay the loan after maintenance of his family at minimum daily wages he or she earns. After this, the resolution plan must be finalised and implemented within 90 days from the date of invocation( ref 13) </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Debt may be good but never in the state of indebtedness! It has both qualitative and quantitative implications. Propensity to debt, especially “indebtedness” is a matter of big concern. Impact of indebtedness varies both in degrees and dimensions. The state of being in debt (indebtedness) covers both personal and behavioural finance and is blended with positive and negative outcomes. On the minor positive end , people who have easy access to money to debt from the bank MFIs may have some chances for temporary financial wellness, provided the money is used for productive , gain business. The negative outcomes of money lending are desertion, huge distress and depression of the indebted consumers. Many times, such incidence results in forced migration as observed in the cases of absconding. The extreme end of indebtedness leads to suicidal tendencies often culminating at self-killing! Such unpleasant incidents potentially affect the present as well as the future of a person. Sometimes the shock of indebtedness cascades down to a couple of generations. Recent agitations of the Tamil farmers, protesting for the announcement of a drought relief package and loan waiver, are evidences to what debt-distress is and what it can do!(14) </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Conclusion -: </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In conclusion, to me and for Poor's , job less people , illiterate, semi literate people, people of urban, semi urban, rural villages MICROFINANCE COMPANIES IS NOT AT ALL A BLESSING IT IS RATHER A BIG CRUSE. IT SHOULD BE STOPPED IMMEDIATELY and MFI company owners/ their agents ( Money landers ) to be punished for illegal money lending to borrowers with exorbitant high interest rate beyond nationalised bank interest rate or RBI Bank interest rate fixed for Microfinance registered companies with RBI .Government of West Bengal and Govt of India should take interest in sensitising people about the curse of microfinance loan otherwise the poor people will go more poorer and borrower families will be destroyed.</span></p><br /><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">References_: </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( URL to read on curses of microfinance loan to the society at large through out india)</span></p><br /><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: decimal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Moumita Alam "Microfinance debt trap exploits Bengal villagers" People's Review Friday June 25021</span></p></li></ol><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://www.peoplesreview.in/economy/2021/06/after-chit-fund-scams-microfinance-debt-trap-exploits-bengal-villagers/" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.peoplesreview.in/economy/2021/06/after-chit-fund-scams-microfinance-debt-trap-exploits-bengal-villagers/</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><br /><ol start="2" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: decimal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">BL Chennai bureau "Tamil Nadu pips West Bengal to become the largest State in terms of outstanding microfinance loan portfolio" The Hindu business line June 15,2022</span></p></li></ol><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/tamil-nadu-pips-west-bengal-to-become-the-largest-state-in-terms-of-outstanding-microfinance-loan-portfolio/article65529419.ece" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/tamil-nadu-pips-west-bengal-to-become-the-largest-state-in-terms-of-outstanding-microfinance-loan-portfolio/article65529419.ece</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><br /><ol start="3" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: decimal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Muskan Web Top 10 Microfinance in West Bengal December 17 2022</span></p></li></ol><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://www.muskanweb.com/2022/12/top-10-microfinance-in-west-bengal.html" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.muskanweb.com/2022/12/top-10-microfinance-in-west-bengal.html</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">4)</span><a href="https://www.newsclick.in/West-Bengal-Sharecropper-Dies-Suicide-due-Microfinance-Debt-Many-Affected-Loans" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.newsclick.in/West-Bengal-Sharecropper-Dies-Suicide-due-Microfinance-Debt-Many-Affected-Loans</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">5) soutik Biswas India's micro-finance suicideepidemic BBC News Medak Andhra Pradesh 16 December 2010</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11997571" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11997571</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">6)</span><a href="https://www.ijser.org/paper/Microfinance-A-blessing-or-a-cruse.html" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.ijser.org/paper/Microfinance-A-blessing-or-a-cruse.html</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">7)</span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8250239/" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8250239/</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">8)</span><a href="https://www.muskanweb.com/2022/12/top-10-microfinance-in-west-bengal.html" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.muskanweb.com/2022/12/top-10-microfinance-in-west-bengal.html</span></a></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">9) Microfinance - A blessing or a cruse</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 4, Issue 7, July-2013 345ISSN 2229-5518IJSER © 2013 </span><a href="http://www.ijser.org" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">http://www.ijser.org</span></a></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">10)sandip chaudhury West Bengal Share croper dies of suicide due to microfinance debt ,many affected loans News click 22nd February 2022 </span><a href="https://www.newsclick.in/West-Bengal-Sharecropper-Dies-Suicide-due-Microfinance-Debt-Many-Affected-Loans" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.newsclick.in/West-Bengal-Sharecropper-Dies-Suicide-due-Microfinance-Debt-Many-Affected-Loans</span></a></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">11) Thirty commits sucide in 45 days to escape microfinance agents The economic Times Oct 15 2010</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">12)Alamgir Hossain 'Plumber dies by suicide as EMI collection agents squat outside" samsergang in murshidabad The Telegraph 24.06.2021</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/plumber-dies-by-suicide-as-emi-collection-agents-squat-outside-at-a-murshidabad-village/cid/1819882#" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/plumber-dies-by-suicide-as-emi-collection-agents-squat-outside-at-a-murshidabad-village/cid/1819882#</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">13) special correspondent "RBI re-opens one-time debt restructuring scheme for individual borrowers "The Telegraph 6.05.2021</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://www.telegraphindia.com/business/covid-rbi-re-opens-one-time-debt-restructuring-scheme-for-individual-borrowers/cid/1814669#" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.telegraphindia.com/business/covid-rbi-re-opens-one-time-debt-restructuring-scheme-for-individual-borrowers/cid/1814669#</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">14)Pattnaik, Debidutta, Indebtedness – From the Perspective of Commercial Microfinance in India (July 28, 2017). Available at SSRN: </span><a href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=3010244" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://ssrn.com/abstract=3010244</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> or </span><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3010244" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3010244</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Published in E journal of legal services in India </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-10805-microfinance-companies-in-india-are-not-at-all-a-blessings-it-is-rather-a-big-curse-it-should-be-stopped-immediately-by-law.html">https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-10805-microfinance-companies-in-india-are-not-at-all-a-blessings-it-is-rather-a-big-curse-it-should-be-stopped-immediately-by-law.html</a><br /></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6667px; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Published in vernacular ( Bengali language ) in a daily Bengali news paper published from Kolkata named "Duranta Barta " published serially on its page no 4</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">27.03.23,( first part) </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">28.03.23( second part ) </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">on 1.04.23( 3Rd part ) </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">4th part (fourth part) on 5.04.2023,</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">5th part ( fifth part) on 06.04.2023</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> 6th part ( sixthpart ) on 9.04.2023, </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">7th( seventh part on 11.04.2023</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">URL from where they can be down loaded </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://durantbarta.com/e-newspaper</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSdKSoKvyhWWzYBw21Yvlu2CRU6znSpTTZkM9i2YiHzm2rwdqk7twGcnW4KN5lmLk1fSAYjGvjsw3SLGr9l6Sm7SPpMA6p6r589jQbDDZjolPwB6XLBgESsLatLuICxTxSRbRXeXBCJxTbOcYui3ZKvmdoVOkJYrslm9BU9VphN6Oos1IYikIrtpJG/s1520/Screenshot_2023-03-30-19-49-21-649_com.adobe.reader.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1520" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSdKSoKvyhWWzYBw21Yvlu2CRU6znSpTTZkM9i2YiHzm2rwdqk7twGcnW4KN5lmLk1fSAYjGvjsw3SLGr9l6Sm7SPpMA6p6r589jQbDDZjolPwB6XLBgESsLatLuICxTxSRbRXeXBCJxTbOcYui3ZKvmdoVOkJYrslm9BU9VphN6Oos1IYikIrtpJG/s320/Screenshot_2023-03-30-19-49-21-649_com.adobe.reader.jpg" width="152" /></a>second part</span></div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdym6i0H_foSZdbPjv37T7LYWet_1yxMDkGwXuzJwrCaZ2SMLOYi8OHGnmJb3vwTripMWPZryWCen9AURgEeKq895LzfAMFFsH2bgEVw1SO5rUwVHqpaZeUxWYWM-WNPniWOAw5aJRbQLa5dU1HwgbKGnga9_I5v0VEYujlpzuIKL2yANrQulM-g34/s1520/Screenshot_2023-03-30-19-47-39-587_com.adobe.reader.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1520" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdym6i0H_foSZdbPjv37T7LYWet_1yxMDkGwXuzJwrCaZ2SMLOYi8OHGnmJb3vwTripMWPZryWCen9AURgEeKq895LzfAMFFsH2bgEVw1SO5rUwVHqpaZeUxWYWM-WNPniWOAw5aJRbQLa5dU1HwgbKGnga9_I5v0VEYujlpzuIKL2yANrQulM-g34/s320/Screenshot_2023-03-30-19-47-39-587_com.adobe.reader.jpg" width="152" /></a> First part</div><br /></span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjM--Kf3ANnH0FUU9oPahh2E5L88GiUrKlROg7VnPkKMT6nEt9LVvgDnXS-9U37x09_k81sMZSrfctfWLpK2M7RFIvnJSE4cOvle_OD4_6GKqPuf0hZlCx-2P3e-OOwHYUnagMzKVFKiX5pLSSMCBsoelB--dGKo-eqNKH9VTrzTxCwM59bHbV7jlpD/s1520/inbound6066425765576307347.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1520" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjM--Kf3ANnH0FUU9oPahh2E5L88GiUrKlROg7VnPkKMT6nEt9LVvgDnXS-9U37x09_k81sMZSrfctfWLpK2M7RFIvnJSE4cOvle_OD4_6GKqPuf0hZlCx-2P3e-OOwHYUnagMzKVFKiX5pLSSMCBsoelB--dGKo-eqNKH9VTrzTxCwM59bHbV7jlpD/s320/inbound6066425765576307347.jpg" width="152" /></a>third part</div><br /><p></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEismylRdvwpeFhf47qqi1b46IyHFdJGOMiDlIRfnX078HdqETVajTwVwldCwTlSryYR-Pj_0pJUbD_TbhWrt_eJ2KRNslSIdI-9HZDRCghivjqXRtmaRNxY9o7ucCpl7zQY8QRJFhaFFGXt-TzUYqYxF_omvPTkh7Oz6Z_RNWld5V8fzDCcf4A977Av/s1520/Screenshot_2023-04-05-07-47-14-187_com.adobe.reader.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1520" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEismylRdvwpeFhf47qqi1b46IyHFdJGOMiDlIRfnX078HdqETVajTwVwldCwTlSryYR-Pj_0pJUbD_TbhWrt_eJ2KRNslSIdI-9HZDRCghivjqXRtmaRNxY9o7ucCpl7zQY8QRJFhaFFGXt-TzUYqYxF_omvPTkh7Oz6Z_RNWld5V8fzDCcf4A977Av/s320/Screenshot_2023-04-05-07-47-14-187_com.adobe.reader.jpg" width="152" /></a></div>Fourth part <br /><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span><p></p><br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuL8L2myfgiNUWaDy6UvykHXK8Z6f6k3pncNiAIhZWc-0u-hHqMbzhFjz6qL2w7mYgDysqXRT5snUXbFWrxuoCJpXCTQqcr_q8UULIT49dRJq_YsYFoepeJ0mwsIFdPNiCfcnUEZWUl6Xp0jC7yQXBVTNFXemWS9PCmMc4WWjYHuxjMd_X6VfffldN/s1520/Screenshot_2023-04-07-07-44-58-428_cn.wps.xiaomi.abroad.lite.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1520" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuL8L2myfgiNUWaDy6UvykHXK8Z6f6k3pncNiAIhZWc-0u-hHqMbzhFjz6qL2w7mYgDysqXRT5snUXbFWrxuoCJpXCTQqcr_q8UULIT49dRJq_YsYFoepeJ0mwsIFdPNiCfcnUEZWUl6Xp0jC7yQXBVTNFXemWS9PCmMc4WWjYHuxjMd_X6VfffldN/s320/Screenshot_2023-04-07-07-44-58-428_cn.wps.xiaomi.abroad.lite.jpg" width="152" /></a></div>Fifth part <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjfWIPNHfq1mABbePyW785E-9-pzZniMfu6d6p__xlnW0fOV5peQHcmLptabpF4s5xXtP1R1EGFK6N_FLMQOkE7TikqcVLZd92km9h1z32OS8mwVh9nz55LwdGSJe87tKkXHibYlOF3za8m_cBvJD-ZTmET2t4YMyDbBKZbqr5ce-uflEZeCdv47sh/s1520/Screenshot_2023-04-10-13-07-02-154_com.adobe.reader.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1520" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjfWIPNHfq1mABbePyW785E-9-pzZniMfu6d6p__xlnW0fOV5peQHcmLptabpF4s5xXtP1R1EGFK6N_FLMQOkE7TikqcVLZd92km9h1z32OS8mwVh9nz55LwdGSJe87tKkXHibYlOF3za8m_cBvJD-ZTmET2t4YMyDbBKZbqr5ce-uflEZeCdv47sh/s320/Screenshot_2023-04-10-13-07-02-154_com.adobe.reader.jpg" width="152" /></a></div>6th part<br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjs5IQJHmryuGxGhuVhlfPjCdG546accHQH2YJGZJ0g_vpROeJw80QKeF_CPwInp0Q3db5u16WbqiOJBiov2GwgqQrxoYmMiiiHglj5RFjHEim1eQMrJ5P2QAS4ATf_kf9jqCVXp_XZZzRdUNcKVKLb9p0_ULTxYLKqYuMM8_TbSQgyt-9EwXtkuniS/s1076/Screenshot_2023-04-11-11-17-24-620_cn.wps.xiaomi.abroad.lite.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1076" data-original-width="716" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjs5IQJHmryuGxGhuVhlfPjCdG546accHQH2YJGZJ0g_vpROeJw80QKeF_CPwInp0Q3db5u16WbqiOJBiov2GwgqQrxoYmMiiiHglj5RFjHEim1eQMrJ5P2QAS4ATf_kf9jqCVXp_XZZzRdUNcKVKLb9p0_ULTxYLKqYuMM8_TbSQgyt-9EwXtkuniS/s320/Screenshot_2023-04-11-11-17-24-620_cn.wps.xiaomi.abroad.lite.jpg" width="213" /></a></div><br /><div>Seventh part </div>Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-27055604872720724662022-12-11T07:15:00.000-08:002022-12-11T07:15:03.421-08:00Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; : The first generation of stars formation at Redshif...<a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2022/12/the-first-generation-of-stars-formation.html?spref=bl">Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; : The first generation of stars formation at Redshif...</a>: Title -: The first generation of stars formation at Redshift Z=0 and when did they lit up the dark matter? Authors Rupak Bhattacharya 1 ...Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-47171991483723563172022-12-11T07:07:00.006-08:002023-03-15T01:05:51.432-07:00The first generation of stars formation at Redshift Z=0 and when did they lit up the dark matter? <p> <span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: 700; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505">Title -: The first generation of stars formation at Redshift Z=0 and when did they lit up the dark matter? </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="color: #980000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Authors </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">Rupak Bhattacharya 1 ,Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya 2, Upasana Bhattacharya 3, Ritwik Bhattacharya 4, Aiyshi Mukherjee 5, Rupsha Bhattacharya 6, Debasish Mukherjee 7 , Dalia Mukherjee 8, Hindol Banerjee 9 </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">Corresponding author</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">Prof Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">E-mail: </span><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">profpkb@yahoo.co.in</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">Mobile no and whatsapp no 9231510435</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">1 Theoretical Physicist, Department of Physics, Jadavpur University, 24 Parganas, North Kolkata -110, West Bengal, India</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">2 Former Professor & Head of Pathology in West Bengal Medical Education Services, Govt of West Bengal, India & ex Principal of a Medical College under PPP Model at Chakdaha, District -Nadia, West Bengal </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">3 Student, school of Design, Department of Fashion Design, UPES University, Dehradun, Uttrakhand, India</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">4 Graduated from, Department of Commerce, Calcutta University, </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">Kolkata, West Bengal, India</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">5 Student, Department of Biotechnology, Kalyani University, West Bengal, India</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">6 Student, Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, West Bengal State University, Barasat, West Bengal, India</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">7 Graduated, from Department of Science , Calcutta University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">8 School Teacher, Department of Arts, Calcutta University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">9 Service Man, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">24 Parganas West Bengal, India</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /><br /><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">Acknowledgement -:</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">All authors of this article gratefully acknowledges contributions of following persons to bring them up and educating them about the" Origin and fate of this Universe, Multi Universe theory, Possibility of Extraterrestrial Intelligent civilization, Panspermia theory and about exoplanets" like our late parents, late Mr. Bholanath Bhattacharya (1926-2009) B.Com ( honours in accountancy; University of Calcutta) ; FCA ( intermediate );SAS and late Mrs. Bani Bhattacharya (1935-2006) of their residence at 7/51 Purbapalli, Post Office -: Sodepur, District 24 Parganas (North ) ; Kolkata -110, West Bengal ,India and also to below mentioned uncles and aunts late Mr. Ajit Kumar Chakraborty, late Mrs Sudharani Chakraborty, late Mr Abani Kumar Chakraborty , late Mrs Rebeka Chakraborty , late Dr Asit Kumar Chakraborty, Mr. Binay Chakraborty, Mrs Aparna Chakraborty ,Prof .Dr . Monoj Bhattacharya, late Prof. Dr. Krishna Bhattacharya , late Mr. Nakul Chandra Bhattacharya and specially to Late Mrs Sialabala Chakrabortyn of Mahajati Nagar Agarpara, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, India </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Corresponding author</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> -: Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya MD ( University of Calcutta ); FICPath; WBMES (Retired)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">Email-: profpkb@yahoo.co.in </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"> mobile phone number and whatsapp -: +91 9231510435</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">Copyright of this Manuscript</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"> Belongs primarily to Prof. Dr. Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya and next to authors as per serial orders under strict Copyright acts and laws of Intellectual Property Rights of World Intellectual Property Rights organisations ( WIPO) , RDF copyright rights acts and laws and PIP copyright acts of USA 2012 where Prof Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya is a registered member. Copyright Transfer proforma submitted already while uploading the manuscript. Please Don't try ever to infringe the copyright of the manuscript to protect yourself from criminal offences suit file in court of law in any places of india and by civil law for compensation in few millions US dollar or in pounds or in Euro in any court of laws in India </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="color: magenta; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank">Strict Terms and </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"><span style="color: magenta; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Conditions for publishing</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: magenta; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the manuscript</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3505" target="_blank"> in any open access journals by the author when and if and when accepted by external peer reviewers</a> for publication in that journal </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> 1)There must not be any kind of APC ( in the name of articles processing charge or article publishing charge or article review charge or for any DOI charge etc ) from the end of authors in any form whatsoever it is by the editor/ editorial board members even if it is an open access indexed journal . If wanted ever for whatever any clause, the article will be withdrawn immediately by the corresponding author even if copyright transfer proforma signed by authors and already sent to journal </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">2) That the full copy right of the article manuscript, if once accepted by external peer reviewers and next published must belong to authors in chronological orders as per all copyright acts and laws of Intellectual Property Right IPR of WIPO and RDF copyright laws of authors only। No one else from the journal's Editor or editorials board members will ever enjoy the copyright of the article even if it is published in a journal and the same copyright must be mentioned in the published articles in journals page as per above. " Copyright belongs to authors Bhattacharya Pranab Kumar etal as per IPR copyright acts and rules"</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">3) minimum one free copy of the article published in pdf must be mailed to all authors given e mail and he/ they can use the article in whatever manner he /they wants or like or share</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">4) link of the article published in the journal and access to the article by all the authors must be there forever, once it is published in that journal</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">5) There must not be any kind of dispute about the author's qualifications , affiliations orders and acknowledged persons from the end of journals editorial board members or editors. No change of authors chronological orders, qualifications and affiliation as mentioned in the manuscript will be ever entertained at all on any kind of requests</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">7) That the article may be remaining published at first in the Blogs of Prof Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya " at Google blogs which is protected Blog content as per IPR and RDF based copyright issues and usal viewers of blogs are 1,5 lakh per year. No request to erase the article from that Blogs content even if some kinds of plagiarism may be shown as the same article is published before hand in his blogs in that case article may be published in journal as Reprint article </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">8) If you agree on these terms and conditions of authors , Please only then proceed for external double blinded peer review process, if you consider it suitable for your journal to publish and if accepted for publication, then proceed & if you don't agree, then please let the corresponding author know that you are not agreed and immediately erase the sent article manuscript from your all kinds of possession for future, so that author can send the article to next journal he likes to send</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="color: magenta; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Declaration by corresponding authors</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The undersigned as authors declare that he is sending the article to the journal…..</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Abstracts</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Our home is our own life igalaxy, the "Milky </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Way " which consists of trillions and trillions numbers of stars . One of the middle aged, yellow stars is our sun . 400 billions of stars moving with a very complex and orderly grace in our spiral galaxy the Milky Way. In all galaxies there are perhaps as many as many planets as stars i.e 10 </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">11</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> x 10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">11</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> =10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">22</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ,10 billion trillions planets .Some stars are solitary </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">though in a binary star formation system) like our sun and most of the stars have their own companions. Systems of stars are commonly seen double, i.e two stars are orbiting one another. Some stars are so close that they touch each other and star staff flow beneath them .Most stars are however separated from one another by vast spacetime. Stars are born and they die too. Some stars went into novas and or in supernovas and are as bright as the entire galaxy that contains them. Some stars end them in blackholes and are invisible even from a few hundred kilometres away . Some stars are in triple star systems, some are in binary star systems. Some stars are blue hot and very young. Some stars are yellow stars. Yellow stars are conventionally middle aged, while red ( red giants ) stars are elderly or dyeing stars. Some stars are in white dwarfs and they are in the final stage of death. Our '' sun " is a second generation star of a binary star formation process, produced by collapse of gases, Interstellar clouds within the framework of spiral pattern, a gaseous cloud which contains material required for nuclear furnaces,appearing inside the star. Stars are formed of giant interstellar mass, molecular clouds, containing trillions and trillions tons of gaseous hydrogen and deuterium ions as they collapse under gravity. Now in the dense clouds containing perhaps ten thousands millions (10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">10</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">) atoms per cubic centimetre- that represent a much more dense collection of material , rather than gaseous material in stars , how are they converted into bright stars? How the stars were formed in the nebula or in galaxies of the universe? Stars formation is an astronomical puzzle that involves pure poor understanding of how interstellar giant molecular clouds( CDM+HDM) turned into the stars ! stars are formed from protostellar condensation in the star forming regions like Nebulas.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Key words </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Age of the universe, Red shift, Hubble constant , cepheids, super cooled stage of universe, voids , COBE,</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The age of the universe and Hubble constant</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> -: The universe started at 20 x 10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">10</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> (that is 20,000,00 million years) ago but there is still uncertainty about the age of the universe according to the present authors. Determination of hydrogen molecules suggest that H~50km/s</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">~1</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> MPC OH</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-2 </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">=20M10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">2</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> years universe , while age of old galactic clusters NGC is 10M x 10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">2</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> years and the age of elements obtained from the active isotopes were more than ~10M x10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">2 </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">years . The Friedmann and the Le-Maitre models of the universe tell us that the universe however has a finite age and it must be either expanding or contracting or simulteniously in both expansion and contraction i.e in the Big Bounce( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ref 1</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">) . This observation that the galaxies are in redshift having special features of shifted to red wavelength in an apparent Doppler recession strongly supports the expanding universe model now. Confidence in the Friedmann Le -Maitre model was strengthening further when Edwin Hubble discovered the near relation between redshift and distances in galaxies in 1929. Hubble discovered a cosmological constant and this constant H(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">) is popularly is known as Hubble constant, which is usually expressed in terms of kilometres per second per mega per second I.e 50 km/ S/MPC.The Hubble parameter is defined as H(t) =1/R (t) xdR (t)/dt , whereR(t) is the scale factor of the universe. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Hubble constant</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> in the current value of that parameter and is defined as H(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">)= H(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">Now ) </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">= velocity/ distance and is estimated by measuring the velocity and distance of extragalactic objects. Hubble is perhaps the most important parameter in cosmology because it not only provides us the physical scale of the universe which affects the observed absolute wise, dynamical mass and luminosity of extragalactic objects but it also provides us with an approximate estimated age of the universe.The Hubble constant has the unit of inverse time. An estimate of the age of the universe, is the hubble time 1/ H</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> . This is the approximate age at a nearly empty Universe one, where expansion had not significantly been solved by its mass energy content. A new model of the universe called the Ω=1 model, where Ω is the ratio of the universe's mass energy density to the critical value required for binding. In the Friedmann model, the expansion rate of the universe approach is zero, as time approaches to infinity and the current age of the universe is then (2/3 ) H</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-1</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> then age=1/H</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[1-2q</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">+1</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">-q</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">(1-2q</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-3/2</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">σσ=h</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-1</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">(1/q</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">0-1</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">) where the deceleration parameter q</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">0 </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">is (½) Ω the ratio if you of universe mean mass density to the closer density ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">reference</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Bhattacharya Rupak and Bhattacharya Pranab Kumar unpublished</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ). The age of the universe when M</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> is of 50kmxS</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-1</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">MPC</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-2 </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">gives the age of the universe near 20 billion years while an H</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">0 </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">of 100</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">35</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">km S</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-1</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">MPC</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-1</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> in an empty universe corresponds to an age of 13.8 billion years. </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Virgo Cepheids -:</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But the cepheid variables are the bright stars whose brightness varies periodically on a time scale between one and hundreds days . The period of cepheid is very tightly correlated with its brightness. So they are excellent indicators of the distance of the expanding universe and also the age of the universe and are figured permanently in the extragalactic distance scale. Cepheid first gave us the idea of other galaxies lying outside our Milky Way. Virgo cepheid or Virgo galaxy clusters are so far away , as far as the most distant previously measured cepheids. They are now measured by the Hubble space telescope. New example of Virgo cepheids H</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">=87+-7kms</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-1 </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">MPC</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-1 ..</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The galaxy there NGC4571 is in the core of Virgo clusters Galaxy. Again H</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">~=87+-7kms-1MPC as short value and long value H</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">= 50 kmxS</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-1</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">MPC</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-1</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> will after the age of the universe for 20 billions years to 11.2+-0.9 billions years and 7.3+- billion years for Ω=0 model and Ω=1 model respectively. The absence of accelerating force for the age of the universe is less than 1/H</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and in standard Big Bang model as 2/3x1/H0 or 7x10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">9 </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">years. In contrast some stars are thought to be 8x10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">9 </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">years old. So here starts the crisis regarding the age of the universe. In the Friedmann universe model Freidmann et al calculated H</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: sub;">0</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">~=80 +-17kms-1MPC</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-1</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> implying that the age of the universe is 9X10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">9 </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">years. In that case, identifying 20 cepheid variables in M100 is a beautiful spiral galaxy in Virgo. However if we are ready to accept the theory that the age of the universe is estimated from the cosmological model based on the Hubble constant as per this model, the age of the universe will be then 13.7+-2GYR I.e 13.8 billions years . </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Big Bang ,Supercooled stage, GUT, Vacuum, cold and hot Dark Matter-: </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Though a Big Bang like event happened in the early universe ,the universe spent a period of time in the early phase (1S planck's time) in a super cooled stage (about 400,000 years after the Big Bang ,that the cosmos had cooled sufficiently for protons and electrons to recombine into atoms ). In the super cooled stage its density (3K) was then dominated by large positive constant vacuum energy and false vacuum.The supercooled stage was then followed by the appearance of multiple bubbles inflation. The temperature variations occured in 3K cosmological background imprinted some 10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-35</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> second pre inflationary stage and Grand Unified Theory ( GUT) happened there with generation of trillions and trillions degree of temperature. As per old inflationary theory of the Big Bang, there appeared multiple bubbles of true vacuum and inflation blew up a small causally connected region of the universe that was something much like the observable universe of today. This actually preceded large scale cosmological homogeneity and were reduced to an exponentially small number the present density of any magnetic monopoles, that according to many particle physicists GUTs would have been produced in the pre inflationary phase. In the old inflationary theory the universe must be homogeneous in all its directions and was isotropic. In old inflation theory the super cooled stage was married by the appearance bubbles of the true vacuum, the broken symmetry of ground state . The model of old inflation theory however was later on abundant, because the exponential expansion of any supercooled state always prevented the bubbles from marching and complicated the phase transition. Moreover In true sense, the universe is not totally homogeneous but on a small scale non homogeneous too. It is very much a well known fact that the universe contains a critical density of matter (3K) and infinite space time. The matter was mostly baryonic and Mixed Dark Matter ( MDM) . Through COBE satellite studies we know that the early universe was a mixture of Cold Dark Matter and Hot Dark Matter, which is known all together as Mixed Dark Matter (MDM). Most Redshift surveys had been either shallow ( Z =< 0.03 ), and three dimensional surveys of a few thousands of galaxies covering a large angle or somewhat deeper (Z > 0.05).</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">How first generation galaxy and stars formed at redshift zero-:</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> So arguments still persist about the mechanism by which first galaxies and first generation stars were formed in the early universe. The essence of the problem is that while galaxies were on average, were uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the universe as it should be in the inflationary "Big Bang model " the observed distribution of both optically visible and radio galaxies on the sky were not at all uniform. But they were very patchy . Does this clumsiness represent that distribution of matter at some primaeval stage in the evolution of the universe or there has been some time of gravitational process? . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Jerhimia Ostriker and Lennox Cowie (</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ref no 2</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ) had suggested that the present distribution of galaxies is in the relic of a dynamic process, in which outward propagating shock waves created an earlier generation of galaxies. Created galaxies at some place were of high density on the shock front. But the problem of their theory to present authors are that the empirical rule which says the chance finding of a second galaxy within same value unit at a distance of "S" is proportional to an inverse power of "S" which simply means that there is a greater chance that galaxies will be close together than it is far apart. Secondly the distribution of galaxies in the universe may have a fractional three – dimensional structures. The most spectacular of large voids in three dimensions of galaxies is BOTES VOID - a region at least 50 MPS in diameter that contains no luminous galaxies. A survey of large scale galaxy distributions reveals that the" Large voids were not the exceptions, but the rules. The survey was the systematic collection of red shifts of all galaxies of apparent magnitude brightness than 15.5 in a region measuring 6 degrees by 12 degrees in the sky. The Red shifts via the'' Hubble laws `` provide us a three dimensional map of galaxy distributions in a limited volume of the universe. Inspection of the map of the galaxy revealed a striking results - large apparently empty ,quase spherical voids dominated space time and galaxies are crammed into the thin sheet and ridges in between hole ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ref no 3 Joseph Sick )</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and Joseph Sick discussed in his article, that galaxies were distributed in a thin slice of universe to 150 MPC. The redshift measurement of galaxies however revealed a foamy and clustered distribution of galaxies in the early universe. Most of them were lying on a sheet , surrounding large almost empty holes up to 50 MPC. According to Ostriker and Cowie, an explosion initiated by many supernovas in a newly formed galaxy drove a blast wave, which propagated outward shock waves and swept away a spherical shell of ambient gas . A hole was thus evacuated and an unstable compressed shell fragmented to form many more galaxies. These in turn developed blast waves and a series of bubbles developed that filled most of the spaces with galaxies ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">reference no 4 Jehemia Ostriker and Lennox Cowie )</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and published independently by </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Satron Takeuchi</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">reference no</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">5</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ). </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But problems of this hypothesis to present authors are *1) possibility of the mechanism itself-: supernovas exploded and cleared out holes that are tens or in rare cases hundreds of processors? and **2) Did this phenomenon really work out on the scale of MPC?*** 3) Billions of supernovas were presumed to be exploded coherently over the crossing time of galaxy of about 10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">9</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> years to yield a vast explosions**** 4 ) Next is the missing ingredient which is gravity. Density fluctuations were present at the beginning of the time in the earliest instant of the "Big Bang gospel " and gravity amplified the fluctuations into a large-scale structure of the universe. Most cosmologists believe today that galaxies originated in this manner ,rather than explosive amplification of primordial seeds which themselves must be attributed into initial conditions.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> A "giant hole" in the universe had been discovered by astronomers from Minnesota in 2009 January. Investigating an area of the sky known as the WMAF cold spot, Lawrence Rudnick and his colleagues found a void empty of stars gas and even dark matter. As AF's widely circulated report notes, the hole is big : an" expense of nearly 6 billions trillions miles of emptiness "astronomers have long known that there are big voids in the universe,and think they can explain them with their theories as to how large structures first formed ( re</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ference no 6 Daniel Cressey) .</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Galactic Disks of spiral galaxies consist of Dark matter, COBE study </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Our galaxy ,the Milky Way, also contains disks of "Dark matter".Dark matter is always invisible but its presence can be inferred through its gravitational influence on its surroundings. Dark matter particles are neutral, it does not couple directly to the electromagnetic field and hence annihilation straight into two monochromatic photons ( or a Photon and a Z boson) are typically strongly suppressed, (y)Gamma rays can be a significant by product of Dark matter annihilation ) since they can rises either from the decay of neutral pions produced in the hydronization of the annihilation products or through Internal bremsstrahlung associated into charged particles,with annihilation into charged particles, interactions of energetic leptons. In the Massimiliano </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Lattazi and Joseph Silk model</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> of 2009 ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ref no 7)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> the annihilation results in two neutral Z Bosons or a pair of W+ and W- Bosons, and the dominant source of y ( Gamma) rays is pion decay . From =~4.5TeV, every annihilation results in 26 photons with energy between 200 and 300 Gev. Physicists today believe that dark matter makes 22% of the mass of the universe ( compared with 4%of normal matter and 74% comprising the supermassive ,"Dark energy" ) . But, despite its pervasive influences, even today no one is sure of what the dark matter consists of. It was thought that matter forms in roughly spherical lumps called halols, one of which envelopes the MilkyWay and other spiral galaxies. Stars and gas are thought to have settled into disks very early on, in the life of the universe and this affected how smaller dark matter halos formed. Such a theory suggests that most lumps of dark matter in our locality actually merged to form a halo around the Milky way. But the largest lumps were preferentially dragged towards the galaxy's disk and were then torn apart, creating a dicks of matter within the galaxy. The presence of unseen haloes of dark matter had long been inferred from the high rotation speed of gas and stars in the outer part of spiral galaxies. The volume of density of these dark matter decreases less quickly from the galaxy centre than does heat luminous mass such as that in stars meaning that that matter dominates the mass from the centre of galaxies .A spiral galaxy is composed of thin disk of young stars called population T stars whose local surface brightness falls below exponentially with cylindrical distances from galactic centres and with height above galactic plane. </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Biassing hypothesis , Density fluctuations, COBE-:</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The concept of biassing the formation of large scale structure of universe was first introduced by Nick Kesar in journal of astrophysics ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Reference no 8 Peacock JA , Heavens AF Monday And Reference no 9 Barden J Bond jr, kaiser Nick Essalay ). </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Galaxies were presumed only to form in the rare peaks of initial Gaussian distribution of density fluctuations. The average Density of the universe is roughly 10-</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">31</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">gcm</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-3</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> which is less than the critical density (K) of the present universe 9×10-27 kg m-3. ( The matter of which universe is made of 42.3% is CDM matter and 73% is Dark energy). Density fluctuations peaks that occurred in potential large scale structure acquired with a slight boost that enabled galaxies to form. The biassing hypothesis enhanced the large scale structure that developed as gravitational forces amplified the initial fluctuations. Biasing hypothesis enabled stimulation of a universe containing" Cold Dark Matter '' at the critical density, with observational determination of density perturbation of the universe. Density fluctuation was present at the beginning of time, in the earliest instances of the Big Bang and gravity amplified the fluctuations into the large scale structure of the universe. The voids were not really voids but contained matter that had somehow failed to become luminous. Dark matter was more uniformly distributed than luminous matter and does not respond to most astronomical tests. The universe is now populated with a non luminous component of matter ( Dark matter ) made of weakly interacting massive particles which cluster in galactic scale and are designated ….. The Dark matter was weakly interacting and was clustered in all scales( and hence labelled as cold ). It selectively formed galaxies at an early epoch in the rare density peaks. The cosmic background explorer study announced on 18th November 1990 that COBE had used its helium cooled detectors to make stunningly accurate measurements of the Big Bang afterglow. The COBE study was based on microwave background radiation that bathed every object of the universe with a cool wash of photon 2.7K .COBE study conferred that the Big Bang was a remarkably smooth and homogeneous event. The COBE study consistently pegged its temperature at about 2.7 K what was predicted by the standard model which holds that radiation was emitted by cosmic fireball just a few hundred after the big bang moment itself and cooling of ever since then. George Smoot ( 2006 Nobel laureate in physics) and his colleagues of Barkley University used differential microwaves radiometer to look for anisotropic variations in the brightness of radiation from point to point in the sky</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> They presumably correspond to the density variation in the cosmic plasma shortly after the big bang and these variations are in turn presumably the clumps of matter that contracted by gravity to form the galaxies . The problem was that anisotropic if they existed at all,were so weak that it was hard to see now that how they had contracted into much of galaxies Any clump that was going to form a galaxy needs to be heavy enough to fight the cosmic expansion which tends to pull the material apart almost as fast as gravity can pull it together. COBE showed no anisotropy at all to an accuracy of one part in 10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">4</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> to 10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">5</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and it was dark matter. The dark matter consisted of some kind of massive but weakly interacting elementary particles produced in the Big Bang. The cosmic background explorer satellite study was undertaken by the leadership of George Smoot and he considered the Big Bang seriously. Microwave background study also provided that Big Bang COBE study had spotted millionth of a degree variations in the temperature of microwave left over from Big Bang traces of the early universe . Images of Big Bang,provide the earliest snapshots of the cosmos from when it was only about 4000,0000 years old only. The model of MDM of the universe is consistent with homogeneous inflation theory and large scale density fluctuations and galaxy distribution that happened in the early universe. It was Merry Gelman who first described the nature of the earliest particles in the universe. According to him it was quarks particles in Quantum theory. Actually speaking, the quest for the early universe had provided the particle physicists with development of an unrivalled accelerator of high energy particles in the Geneva LHC. The Grand unified theory ( GUT) based on gauge symmetry says that protons (the nucleon) should decay with half life of at most 10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">31</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> years. But while isolating the rarest events due to spontaneous decaying of protons ,extensive shielding from atmospheric muons produced by cosmic rays showers were also regarded and primary results once were supported at Geneva, Switzerland , at LHC . This experiment was carried out provided in the deep underground Kolar Goldfield,kamoka. This experiment provided us with the most sensitive limit so far that the half life of protons is 1.5x10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">32</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> years. This half life of protons is close to the age of the elements obtained from radioactive isotopes ~10x10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">32 </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">years. This experiments had great implications to astrophysicists in that 1) possible explanation of ratio of proton to photon in the Universe.Since the photons now seen in 3K background radiation, are the remnants of equal numbers of particles and antiparticles created during thermal equilibrium of first instances of the universe. These particles were Merry Gelman's quark particles and its anti-particles were anti quarks . Today's observed protons ( matter) represent an excess of matter after antimatter . This is the asymmetry in the universe. This asymmetry probably had arisen naturally after 10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 0.6em; vertical-align: super;">-35</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> second of initial Big Bang.However Madsen and Mark Tailor gave the concept of another particle in the primordial universe (</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Reference no 10=Gerard Jungmank</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">) .The</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> name of their particles is neutrinos.There are broadly three types of species of neutrinos 1) Electron neutrinos 2) Muon neutrinos 3) tat neutrinos ,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">when professor </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Peter Higgs</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Nobel laureate in physics)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> gave concept of another near zero mass ( but not exactly zero mass particle ) in primordial universe the particles named after him "The Higgs particles '' which is concluded and recognized particles that gave mass to all particles in the universe and Higgs particles are many but not a single particle . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">To start the universe ie before the nucleosynthesis there must be some particles with zero rest mass , which may be either neutrinos or may be one of Higgs particles or some others particles (not yet discovered in accelerator ) like Rupak particles ( r particles) or spinors or gravitons that gave dark energy</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> which constitute 73% of the mass of universe. According to Maiden and Tailor the dark matter of which the universe consisted of were the neutrinos and not the quarks .Neutrinos are constantly born during the process of nuclear fusions within every star in the galaxy like it is produced in every second in our sun. In fusion, protons (the nucleus from the simplest element, hydrogen) fuse together to form a heavier element, helium. This fusion process releases neutrinos and energy that will eventually reach our Earth as light and heat. The sun is the source of most of the neutrinos that are passing through any body though any things through any planets at any moment. About 100 billion solar neutrinos pass through your thumbnail in every second .All of the neutrinos produced in the sun are electron neutrinos. An interesting thing happened when scientists started looking for those electron neutrinos in the 1960s. They started an experiment led by </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ray Davis Jr</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. His experiment used 100,000 gallons of dry perchloroethylene to search for neutrinos. It was housed a mile underground in the caverns of the Homestake Gold Mine in South Dakota, which was then an active mine and is now used for science experiments, including further neutrino research in the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment. Davis’s scientific partner, John Bahcall, had predicted how many neutrinos should arrive from the sun and transform one of the chlorine atoms in the detector into an argon atom. But only one third of the neutrinos seemed to arrive. Researchers weren’t sure if the problem was in Davis’s experiment, Bahcall’s calculations and the current model of the sun, or their picture of neutrinos. Some scientists, including Bruno Pontecorvo, proposed that the neutrino experiment model itself was the error, but many were sceptical. In 1989, the Kamiokande experiment in Japan added to the confusion. The pure water detector found more neutrinos than Davis’s experiment, about half of the predicted number. But there was still the question of all those missing neutrinos. The GALLEX experiment in Italy and SAGE experiment in Russia also found that expected low-energy neutrinos were missing. As measurements of the sun improved and the solar model was validated, researchers looked more and more to new physics beyond the Standard Model to explain the neutrino deficit. The breakthrough came with data from two newer experiments. Super-Kamiokande, an improved version of the Kamiokande experiment, began observations in 1996, and the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Canada joined in 1999. Leaders of these two projects would go on to receive the 2015 Nobel Prize in physics for discovering the solution to the solar neutrino problem: </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">neutrino oscillations. Roughly two-thirds of the electron neutrinos coming from the sun were changing their flavour as they travelled, arriving as muon or tau neutrinos.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Evidence that neutrinos changed type also proved that they have mass,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> a shocking discovery. Only about one third to one half of the predicted number of neutrinos actually showed up in detectors. This became known as the solar neutrino problem, and it took nearly four decades to solve it.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">How did the cosmic Dark age end and when did the first star light up in a few hundred millions years ,after the Big</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Bang?</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> According to the standard model of the Big Bang, stars formation in the early universe was very different from the present now. Stars today form in the giant clouds of molecular gas and dust embedded in the disks of large galaxies like our Milky Way or in the dust of nebulas . In the Milky Ways some of these regions are corona Australis clouds, Taras molecular clouds, Orion nebula , Vela ,molecular ridge, Cygnus x, NGC 6334 and 6357, Eagle Nebula, carina nebula,W40, Rcw 36, w43,W49, M17 molecular clouds and extragalactic 30 Doradus regions .</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Whereas the first star evolved inside the Mini Hole that aggregated of primordial gas and dark matter with a total mass of millions of our suns. The very first stars might have appeared when the Universe was only 100 million years old, or less than 1 percent of its current age . All the stars in the universe, we can observe now, can be classified as either Population I or Population II, stars depending on their age and composition in it . Population I stars are younger stars and they contain more heavy elements, while Population II stars are older stars with fewer heavy elements. All of the very first stars that appeared first in the universe to light up the universe from darkness are described as Population III stars and these stars are older still, their existence coinciding with cosmic distances that put them well out of sight of even with help of our best technologies so far. For them now, we can only theorise what they might have looked like. Theoretical physicists think those most earliest stars were super hot, brightest, and massive, may be hundreds of times the mass of our Sun, that we told .Without any clue or history of powerful cosmic in the beginning events of formation of first stars to generate elements heavier than lithium, Population III stars would consist entirely of the simplest of gases. Back then, the only materials available in the Universe were hydrogen, helium, and a little lithium, found in primordial gas left over from the Big Bang. Only once the first stars themselves collapsed in heated violence ,could heavier elements emerge?.Those first stars likely concluded their lives with pair-instability supernovae, -a theoretical type of super-supernova only possible in such massive stars. Unlike other supernovae, this would leave behind no stellar remnants, like a neutron star or a black hole, instead blasting everything outward in an ever-expanding cloud. That blast might have seeded ancient interstellar space with the heavy elements needed for the formation of rocky worlds like our own planet — thus enabling life as we know it — so the net effect is positive . For astronomers on the earth now hoping to learn about Population III stars, however, the light from those ancient mega-explosions has faded into the distance, leaving little more than a diffuse cloud containing a complex mixture of elements. Given time, that mixture of material could itself collapse into something new star . Using near-infrared spectrography data from one of the most distant-known quasars — a type of active galactic nucleus, or the extremely luminous centre of a young galaxy.This quasar's light had been travelling through space for 13.1 billion years before it reaches the Earth, the researchers noted, which means we're seeing the quasar as it looked when the Universe was only 700 million years old. A spectrograph is an instrument that captures and splits incoming light, in this case from a celestial object, into its component wavelengths. This can reveal which elements are present in a far away object, although gleaning that information isn't always easy.The brightness of lines in astronomical spectra can hinge on factors other than the abundance of an element, which may complicate one's efforts to identify specific elements.Analysing the composition of clouds around most distant quasars revealed a strangely low ratio of magnesium to iron in the clouds, which had 10 times more iron than magnesium compared with our Sun. That was a clue, the researchers say, suggesting this was material from the cataclysmic explosion of a first-generation star.It was obvious to us authors then that the supernova candidate for this would be a pair-instability supernova of a Population III star, in which the entire star explodes without leaving any remnant behind,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So the first stars that lit up the universe were in most distant quasars</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">These first stars are quasars, a population</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">III stars</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Since</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> then, the rapid expansion of space has stretched their light into oblivion, leaving us to seek clues about their existence in cosmic sources closer to home . Another difference arises for the initial absence of elements of lithium in enough quantity, other than hydrogen and helium that were synthesised in the Big Bang. Gas clouds today are efficiently via radiation emitted by atoms , molecules,or dust grains that contain heavy elements. Because the primordial gas lacked those contain it remained comparatively hot. For gravity to overcome the higher thermal pressure, the mass of all first stars must have been larger as well . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The emergence of the first stars in quasars fundamentally</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">changed the early universe at the end of the cosmic dark age.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Owing to high masses these stars were copious. They also produced many ultraviolet photons that were energetic enough to ionise hydrogen, the most abundant elements in the universe. Thus began the extension process re- re-ionisation which transformed the universe from the completely cooled and dark material state into fully ionised medium. Observation of CMB due to scattering of CMB photons of free electrons, phase constraints, in the onset of re ionisation . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">How the first stars were formed and how they affected the evolution of the cosmos assumes that dark matter is made of WIMP - yet undetected because they interact with normal matter only via gravity with weak nuclear interactions (</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Unlike normal matter, dark matter does not interact with the electromagnetic force. This means it does not absorb, reflect or emit light, making it extremely hard to spot. In fact, researchers have been able to infer the existence of dark matter only from the gravitational effect it seems to have on visible matter. Dark matter seems to outweigh visible matter roughly six to one, making up about 27% of the universe..) </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">A </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">possible may be non baryonic dark matter is a WIMP candidate is the neutrinos particles</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">,the lightest superpartner in mass supersymmetry theory but not the zero rest mass particles. Super symmetry postulated that for every known particle there must be a super partner thus effectively doubling the mass of the elementary particles .Most of the super particles that were produced after the Big Bang ( including sub quark 2 Rupak Particles ) were unstable and decayed . The neutrinos are expected to be rather massive having roughly the mass of hundreds of protons so they are a part of the cosmos.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">There are three prominent hypotheses on non baryonic dark matter, called Hot Dark Matter (HDM), Warm Dark Matter (WDM), and Cold Dark Matter (CDM) and Mixed Dark matter ( MDM) ; some combination of these is also possible in MDM . The most widely discussed models for non baryonic dark matter are based on the Cold Dark Matter hypothesis, and the corresponding particle is most commonly assumed to be a neutralino. Hot dark matter might consist of (massive) neutrinos. Cold dark matter leads to a "bottom-up" formation of structure in the universe while hot dark matter results in a "top-down" formation scenario.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Most of the matter in the universe did not interact then with light except gravitationally .These dark matters assumed to be very intensively cold ,that is its velocity dispersion was sufficiently small for density perturbation imprinted in the early universe to persist in a very small scale. Dark matter has yet to be detected in the human laboratories.However there might exist some variable dark matter candidates from particle physics that were not cold and they may be termed as Warm Dark matter ( WDM) as per these authors. Warm dark matter particles had intensive thermal velocities and there motion quenched the growth of structure bellow a "Free streaming scale"(The distances over which a typical WDM particles travel),which depends on the nature of the particle, because small and dark haloes do not form better than free streaming scale. The dark matter haloes that formed the first quasars in a WDM model had far less substructures and we're less concentrated as compared to the cold dark matter( CDM) counterparts। </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The first generation stars in the universe formed when the primordial gas compressed by falling into these small Dark matter potential walls. Large scale partners in the spectrum of density perturbation causes progenitors of present day clusters of galaxies to be among the first objects to condense out of initially almost smooth mass distribution</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Liang Gao and Tom Theuns [ </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Reference no 11 Liang Gao] </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">did studied the early star formation in the redshift z=0 and they concluded that pristine gas heated and falls into dark matter potential well (halos)cooled radiatively because of formation of molecular hydrogen and became self gravitating . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">They told another important particles called Gravitinos</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> a popular WDM candidate with mass M 0<6×10−32 eV/c2 and spin 2 a free streaming particle of fewv+- EVs of kelopersec and first star at Redshift z~200 and the growth structure re stimulation in the led to a pattern of filaments and sheets which is familiar from the local large scale distribution of galaxies. The assumed Gaussian spectrum of density perturbation appropriate for an inflationary model led to collapse along one( sheet ) and two ( filaments) direction before formation of haloes. Altogether the large scale filamentary pattern is very similar in CDM and WDM. These structures of filaments themselves were very different. The CDM filaments fragmented later into numerous nearly spherical high density regions ( haloes) and WDM filaments fragmented at redshift z=23.34, when universe was 140 millions years old .Gas and dark matter accredited perpendicular to filament axis. Dark matter particles falling into filaments performed damped oscillation as the potential well deepened. Baryons did not undergo orbit but gas compressed to a temperature T~70000k at ty 20PC. Rapid build up of HE induced cooling and gas started to dominate the density in population III stars. </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Conclusion</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the first stars in the universe were formed in quasars , when primordial chemically pristine gas heated up in the form of WDM as it fell into dark-matter potential wells, cooled radiatively because of the formation of molecular hydrogen, and became self-gravitating. Using supercomputer simulations, it was found by us that the first stars' properties also depended critically on the currently unknown nature of the dark matter. If the dark-matter particles have intrinsic velocities that wipe out small-scale structure, then the first stars formed in filaments with lengths on the order of the free-streaming scale, which can be ∼1020 metres (∼3 kiloparsecs, corresponding to a baryonic mass of ∼107 solar masses) for realistic “warm dark matter” candidates. Fragmentation of the filaments forms stars with a range of masses, which may explain the observed peculiar element abundance pattern of extremely metal-poor stars, whereas coalescence of fragments and stars during the filament's ultimate collapsed may seed the supermassive black holes that lurk in the centres of most massive galaxies.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">References</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">1)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Rupak Bhattacharya, Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya, Upasana Bhattacharya, Ritwik Bhattacharya, Aiyshi Mukherjee, Rupsha Bhattacharya, Debasish Mukherjee, Dalia Mukherjee, Hindol Banerjee "What if the "Big Bang" was not the Beginning Point of our Observable Universe?"Research & Reviews: Journal of Space Science & Technology (RRJoSST) vol 10; no 3; page 1-7 ; 2021 </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">2)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Jerhimia Ostriker and Lennox Cowie in the journal Astrophysics volume 243 page 127 ,1981</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">3)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Joseph Sick Nature vol 320 page 12, 1986</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">4)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Jehemia Ostriker and Lennox Cowie Astrophysics journal letter vol 243,p127,1981</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">5) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Satron Takeuchi, Astronomical society of Japan vol 33 P 211,1981</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">6) Daniel Cressey " plenty of nothing August 24,2007 The Great Beyond Nature.com http:/blogs.nature.com/cgi-bin/mt-tb.cgi/3329 </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">7) Massimillano Lattazi and Joseph Silk "Can the WIMP annihilation boost factor be boosted by the Sommerfeld enhancement" arXiv:0812.0360 (astro-ph))</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">8) Peacock JA and Heavens AF Monday Nottingham Royal Astronomical society Vol 217 P 505 1965 </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">9 ) Barden J Bond jr, kaiser Nick Essalay journal of astrophysics</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">10)Gerard Jungman at "Neutrinos From Particle Decay in the Sun and Earth" Phys.Rev.D51:328-340,1995</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">11) Liang Gao , Tom thens Lighting the Universe with Filaments SCIENCE 14 Sep 2007 Vol 317, Issue 5844 pp. 1527-1530DOI:10.1126/science.1146676</span></p><br /><br /><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><b><span style="color: red;">Strict Copyright warning for Public Viewers of this post © is Strictly maintained with ProfPranab Kr Bhattacharya and all authors and their first degree blood relation and as per Intellectual Property Right copy Right all laws and acts as it is declared</span></b></p><div><b><span style="color: red;">Copy Righted material to ProfDr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya under IPR Copy Right Acts sections-306/301/3D/107/1012/ RDF and Protect Intellectual Property Right ACT of USA-2012. Don't ever try to infringe or involve in plagiariasm unless you are authors or first degree blood relatives of authors, to avoid huge amount</span></b> <b>of <span style="color: red;">compensation in million US dollars and avoiding suit in criminal acts of infringement of copy right under IPR</span></b></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhG6m7f6TBKCXH-zCM0Kxakvnx5rToVZlb32ULM1IKOnOb3iu66GsbNUp3W5s2w6eTnXSncU-LLTICTBvMt7bAcz6idM0ifSMZ2C4G3gYC4E4EWqHM7Tge0Lt7-kB1UooX-oY6ekcGvWpIAesIyTmdv5PJ4lBCME2rHgEsaNHDeR07MTr3bpwzhx7-n/s779/FB_IMG_1661337329478.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="779" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhG6m7f6TBKCXH-zCM0Kxakvnx5rToVZlb32ULM1IKOnOb3iu66GsbNUp3W5s2w6eTnXSncU-LLTICTBvMt7bAcz6idM0ifSMZ2C4G3gYC4E4EWqHM7Tge0Lt7-kB1UooX-oY6ekcGvWpIAesIyTmdv5PJ4lBCME2rHgEsaNHDeR07MTr3bpwzhx7-n/s320/FB_IMG_1661337329478.jpg" width="296" /></a></div><br /></div>Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-82523989621475228452022-07-26T10:18:00.001-07:002022-07-26T10:18:38.351-07:00Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; : What every person must know about the string theor...<a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2022/07/what-every-person-must-know-about.html?spref=bl">Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; : What every person must know about the string theor...</a>: What every person must know about the string theories to evolve all super clusters, galaxies ,stars, planets , planetesimals in the Univ...Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-54278524851469684992022-07-22T08:39:00.007-07:002022-12-11T02:12:05.256-08:00What every person must know about the string theories to evolve all super clusters, galaxies ,stars, planets , planetesimals in the<p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"> </a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br id="docs-internal-guid-62a7da5a-7fff-be08-b030-3cc773d514e7" /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"> </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">What every person must know about the string theories to evolve all super clusters, galaxies ,stars, planets , planetesimals in the Universe </a></span></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Authors are -: </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Rupak Bhattacharya ,BSc (Calcutta University), MSc (Jadavpur University) ,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">of residence 7/51 Purbapalli, Post office - Sodepur, District 24 parganas ( North) Kolkata -110, West Bengal, India,</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Freelancer</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Theoretical physicist </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">He has No institutional affiliation )</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">** Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya MD (University of Calcutta) ,FICPath, WBMES (Retired), </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ex Retired Professor and Head of Pathology from West Bengal Medical Education Services cadre of Department of Health and Family Welfare of Govt of West Bengal ,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">India </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">He Has Presently no Institutional affiliation) </span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">**Upasana Bhattacharya, </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> student of 5th semester B.DES ( Fashion Design course ) , School of Design , UPES University ,Bidhouli , Derhadoon, Uttarakhand, India ,</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"> ***Ritwik Bhattacharya, B. Com</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"> ( Calcutta University) </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">( He has No institutional affiliation )</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">****Aiyshi Mukherjee , </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> BSC Biotechnology (honors) 2nd yr student of Kalyani University, West Bengal</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">***Rupsha Bhattacharya BA (honors) 2nd yr </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">student of Journalism & Mass communications of West Bengal State University, Barasat , North 24 Parganas West Bengal</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">****Debasish Mukherjee BSc (Calcutta University) </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">(He Has No institutional affiliation )</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">****Dalia Mukherjee BA honors (Calcutta university)</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"> (She Has No institutional affiliation )</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"> ***Hindol Banerjee BA (honors) West Bengal State University, Barasat ,north 24 parganas, West Bengal, India</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">*** </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Of residence 7/51 Purbapalli , Post office --Sodepur, D-: 24 parganas</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">( north) ,Kolkata -110 ,West Bengal, India</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">(No institutional affiliation)</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">**** </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Of residence Swamiji Nagar, South Habra, District 24 Parganas ( north ),West Bengal ,India</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">(No institutional affiliation)</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="color: red; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Acknowledgement</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> -:</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">All authors of this article gratefully acknowledge contributions of following persons to bring them up and educate them about the" Origin and fate of this Universe, multi Universe theory, possibility of Extraterrestrial intelligent civilization, panspermia theory and exoplanets" like our parents late Mr. Bholanath Bhattacharya (1926-2009) B.Com ( honors in accountancy; University of Calcutta) ; FCA ( intermediate );SAS and late Mrs. Bani Bhattacharya (1935-2006) of their residence at 7/51 Purbapalli, Post Office -: Sodepur, District 24 Parganas (North ) ; Kolkata -110, West Bengal ,India and also to bellow mentioned uncles and aunts late Mr. Ajit Kumar Chakraborty, late Mrs Sudharani Chakraborty, late Mr Abani Kumar Chakraborty , late Mrs Rebeka Chakraborty , late Dr Asit Kumar Chakraborty, Mr. Binay Chakraborty, Mrs Aparna Chakraborty ,Prof .Dr . Monoj Bhattacharya, late Prof. Dr. Krishna Bhattacharya , late Mr. Nakul Chandra Bhattacharya and specially to Late Mrs Sialabala Chakrabortyn of Mahajati Nagar Agarpara, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, India </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="color: #980000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Corresponding author</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> -: Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya MD ( University of Calcutta ); FICPath; WBMES (Retired)</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="color: #980000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Email</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">-: profpkb@yahoo.co.in </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"> </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="color: #980000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">mobile</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: #980000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">phone number</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and what's app -: +91 9231510435</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Copyright of this Manuscript</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"> Belong primarily to Prof. Dr. Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya and next to authors as per serial orders under strict Copyright acts and laws of Intellectual Property Rights of World Intellectual Property Rights organisations ( WIPO) , RDF copyright rights acts and laws and PIP copyright acts of USA 2012 where Prof Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya is a registered member. Copyright Transfer proforma submitted already while uploading the manuscript. Please Don't try to infringe the copyright of the manuscript ever to protect yourself from criminal offences suit file in court of law and compensation in few millions US dollar or in pounds or in Euro in any court of laws </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Strict Terms and </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Conditions for publishing the manuscript in any open access journals by the author when and if accepted by external peer reviewers for publication </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"> 1)</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">There must not be any kinds of APC ( in the name of articles processing charge or article publishing charge or article review charge or for any Doi charge ) from the end of authors in any form whatsoever it is by the editor/ editorial board members even if it is an open access indexed journal . If wanted ever for whatever any clause, the article will be withdrawn immediately by the authors even if copyright transfer proforma signed by authors and sent to journal </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">2) That the full copy right of the article manuscript, if once accepted by external peer reviewers and next published must belong to authors in chronological orders as per all copyright acts and laws of Intellectual Property Right IPR of WIPO and RDF copyright laws of authors only। No one else from the journal's Editor or editorials board members will ever enjoy the copyright of the article even if it is published in a journal and the same copyright must be mentioned in the published articles in journals page as per above. 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margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: #980000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Copy right to Prof Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya as per IPR copy right </span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Abstract-:</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The basic things of string theory say that we live in an accelerating and ever expanding universe today. String theory also supports the inflation theory of the Big Bang, where a period of rapid expansion happened in the history of the early Universe. Most of the theories in string theory are focused on understanding a theory of broken Supersymmetry. In String theory, De -Sitter space can arise only when Supersymmetry is broken. Breaking supersymmetry in string theory required us to come face to face with problems to maintain stabilisation of the universe. In String theory, vacuum ( voids) was created along with N≥ 2 supersymmetry; there may be flat universes or modules. The energy as we go along three directions in space time ( as it is in scalar field theory) ,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">there are rather many flat directions or dimensions</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">in string theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> . In field theory, the space is remaining constant and in fact vanishes immediately. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But there are 100 flat directions in compactification in string theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> .The flat directions or dimensions are however very bad in Big Bang standard model cosmology. Flat directions cause however many problems in the standard Big Bang model. </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The big question to us is that , does String theory allows the De- sitter universe ,- a Universe with negative cosmological constant to anti De- sitter space and inflation theory of Big Bang? It is</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> known that De -sitter space can only arise if and when Supersymmetry is broken.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> In string</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> theory N </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">≥</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">2 Supersymmetry there are many flat directions or dimensions .</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The energy as we go along then these spaces is a constant and intact vanishes identically and </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">these directions are bad news from part of cosmology</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Cosmologically flat directions also ruin successful prediction of nucleosynthesis later .</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> However a new class of </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">string compactification</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> called "</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">flux compactification" are there</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In this compactification besides curling up the extra dimensions as presumed in string theory , small size fluxes are also turned on along the compactified directions</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. The fluxes includes higher form generalization of magnetic flux in electromagnetism turning them on charges, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the potential in modules space, so that new minima arise</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> in regions or feild space where the potential can be calculated there with control. The value of cosmological constant in this minima can be calculated with a positive value given in De- sitter universe. This theory of Rupak Bhattacharya, Ritwick Bhattacharya, Prof Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya etal (here are authors) can allow De- sitter universe and inflation at Big Bang in "</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">M theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">" and why then this universe started from a Universe that went to re collapsed and faced a Big crunch ie Big Bounce, within a Planck time of Big Bang ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Reference no 1</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">- Rupak Bhattacharya ,Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya upasana Bhattacharya Ritwick Bhattacharya etal "What if the Big Bang was not the beginning point of our observable universe" Research and Reviews : Journal of Space Science and Technology of STM journal ;vol 10 ;issue no 3 ; 2021; page 1-7)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">String theory is the theory of everything?</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Whether string theory can live up to its claim of being the theory of everything</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and whether it will ever provide a satisfactory falsifiable prediction, as such </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">remain a debated question before</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">these present authors</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. String theory was first born in the 1960s. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Here strings interactions demands the fundamental forces of the universe a) Gravity b) Electromagnetism c) Weak nuclear forces d) Strong nuclear forces as we will discuss in the text of this article</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, Fundamental particles scattering experiments in high energy particle accelerators like </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Large Hadron colliders ( LHC) had revealed a stunting proliferation of all resultant fundamental particles. Particles after particles like axions, excitators, spinors, resonance, quarks,neutrinos, W Bosons ,winos , all Fermions, R particles</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, at particular energies aimnantinig for over growing 200 of particles. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But none of these particles including even the latest one of Nobel laureate Peter Higgs " Higgs particles" has yet proved to have resting zero mass in Gev/c*2 temperature in Grand Unified Theories ( GUTs) and thus can not be the most elementary particles in the universe with zero rest mass . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Moreover, an over growing near zero mass of particles in motion at speed of light, can't be all elementary particles and thus a zero resting mass particle will be when discovered only then the mystery of the universe will be solved. We have to search for the resting zero mass particles in the colliders . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">According to the authors of this article, string theory had several flaws</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> , most serious that the mathematical</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> consistency of string theory at first told us that a string must have 26 special dimensions, rather than when our human eyes can see only three dimensions ( maximum four dimensions when space time is considered another dimension or directions). Later a rescue attempt replaced the string with new fermionic particle variety with infinitesimal particle's spins attached to tubular force that could braught dimensions from 26 to minimum 10</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Thus in the 1970s QCD theory came.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Quantum field Gauge theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> in QED of strong interaction </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">resulted in a field blow to understand nuclear physics in terms of Superstring theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> , </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">where string interactions became weak at very short distances.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> But for the string, couplings that occur over large distances know a lattice QCD because it is successful to explain strings. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">We authors wonder if the strings theory stands as theory of everything , then despite all our efforts we still cannot explain why there are no free quarks in Nature ? </span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Key words </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Cosmic String , Hadrons,quarks, anti quarks, Big Bang standard Model, GUT , super heavy strings, Gluons Minkowski space, oscillation of strings, Supersymmetry and Evolution of galaxies,</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Introduction -:</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">One most important theory about the origin of our observable Universe is the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">cosmic strings or superheavy strings</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> theory which are predicted to form in the early Universe in </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Grand Unified Theory ( G.U.Ts),in</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> the standard </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Big Bang model</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">where loops of cosmic strings were considered the seeds of all galaxies of this Universe .</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Before we authors directly jump into </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Superheavy string theory,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">let us first talk a little about </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">elementary particles</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> in Quantum Chromodynamics ( Q.C.D) and in Quantum Electrodynamics (QED).</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">About elementary Particles</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">What is hadrons?-:</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Molecules are composed of atoms. Atoms in turns are composed of electrons and a nucleus. The nucleus in its turn is composed of protons and neutrons and the hosts of very short lived particles with which they interact , are composed of </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">yet more fundamental particles called</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> "</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Quarks". Quarks are not however found in a free state in nature</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. They are thought to be apparently confined in the interior of the particles they are composed of. It is relatively easy to separate an atom from a molecule, an electron from a nucleus or a proton from an atom . But it is very difficult to remove a quark from inside a Proton or a Neutron </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Today the elementary particles are two types </a></span></p><ol style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: decimal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Leptons(ℓ)</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> -: The Electrons and Neutrinos are the most familiar in this group others are electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino</span></a></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: decimal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Photons</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> -: Particles which interact only with one another and with all others . Electric charge of photinos < 1×10*−35 e color charge 0, spin 1, spin state two +1h,-1h; it's condensed state mass is huge -: I(J*P C)=0,1*(1−−)</span></a></p></li></ol><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">So far these two particles had shown no internal structure further</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Hadrons-: </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">It is the most complete structure. Hadrons are defined by the fact that </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">they interact with one another strongly.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> best example of hadrons are protons, neutrons, the Mesons, the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">pi</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> mesons or Pions, the hyperons which do feel strong nuclear forces</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. In QCD, we believe that </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">hadrons are built of smaller building blocks like Quarks, bound together by QCD forces gluons or Glue balls . </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">There are hundreds of known hadrons which exist widely with diverse properties and are very short lived . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The observed properties spectrum of hadrons are broadly divided in two classes</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> a) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Mesons-:</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> which have larger spin (0, 11,2) such as pions(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">π) ,kanon( k), and rhO( P)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">b) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Baryons</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> -: which have half integer spin ( ½, 3/2) such as Proton (P) , Neutron(N) ,Lambda( Λ) ,Omega(Ω). Mesons and Baryons can be subdivided or grouped into multiplets in which the numbers are quite smaller. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This classification scheme is called'' Eightfold ways".</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Merry Gelman</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">( NL) and Zewang( NL) told that all hadrons could be built-in in bound state of few fundamentals one with spin ½ constituents, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">called Quarks</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( fermions ) .According to him </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">mesons are bound state of a quarks (q+) and it's antiparticle (q-)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> while </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Baryons are constructed of three quarks and anti Baryons are made of three anti quarks.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Thus the antiparticles have the same mass as particles but exactly has opposite quantum numbers. The Meson and Barton so constructed should have electric charge through their quarks numbers </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Quark flavours-:</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Up</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Q</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">uarks</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> -: </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">symbol (u);</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Mass ratio (1); in unit of proton charge(+⅔); Baryon(⅓); number of spin(½)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Down Quarks-: symbol (d)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ; Mass ratio (2.5,); in units of proton charge (-⅓) ; Baryon (⅓) ; number of spin (½)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Strange Quarks-: symbols (s</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">) ; Mass ratio ( 50); In units proton charge (-⅓); Baryon (⅓) ; number of spin (½)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Charm Quarks -: symbol ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">c</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ) ; Mass ratio (1673) ; In ratio of proton charge (+⅔) ; Baryon (⅓) ; number of spin( ½)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Bottom Quarks -: symbol</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">b</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">) Mass ratio (1125); In units of proton charge (-13e) ; Baryon (⅓) ; spin(½); it has </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">color</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ; yes it decays finally into charm Quarks or into Up quarks </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Top Quarks</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> -:</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">symbol ( t); </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Mass ratio (3375 or 173 Gev*2) ; In unit of Proton charge (⅔) ; Baryon (⅓) ; spin (12)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">it becomes obvious that quarks, neither anti quarks particles, were ultimately massless</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">particles</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( it was however first thought quarks were massless) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">when they were at rest conditions or in inertia state or in condensation phase</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> , at a point of inflation of the Universe or before the nucleosynthesis started in the universe after Big Bang . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">They had rather huge mass in Gev temperature</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and of quarks particles families, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">top quarks (t) have the highest mass among fermion particles</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">All quarks do carry functional electrical charges</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. The d,s,b quarks charge -⅓ in units of Proton charge while c & t quarks have charge +⅔ . Hadron may be thus labelled by their quantum numbers. Hadrons may carry other quantum numbers which was a pain taking discovery. Over the years" baryon numbers", "strangeness" and " charms' ' were named of importance. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Based on these, hadrons are classified into two broad categories "Baryons" and " Mesons" which are distinguished by their decay products.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">All hadrons decay themselves by emitting leptons (ℓ) photons (γ), or other hadrons,the last of which in turn in the same manner</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Baryons always leave a proton among their decay products</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.Their antiparticles called </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">anti baryons</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> , decay eventually into antiprotons. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Mesons either decay entirely into leptons and photons or into baryons and antibaryons pairs. To</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> quantify all these baryons are assigned as baryon numbers and </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">anti baryons are assigned as" B-1" and Mesons are assigned as "B-0".</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The significance of strangeness (s) and charm(c) is regarded as measurable integer labels carried by hadrons which are labelled in strong interaction but not in weak interaction for beta decay. It is also observed that strange hadrons (s+O) were systematically heavier than non strange hadrons with otherwise identical quantum numbers. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">When hadrons with charm were discovered it was found still heavier</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Proton and the Neutron have nearly the same mass ( about 938 Mev) and are quite similar in many other aspects. They differ, of course, in their electromagnetic charges. All hadrons follow this pattern. They come in small families or multiplates with very similar properties but of different charges. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Thus there must be a kind of symmetry in the Universe. This symmetry is called " isospin symmetry</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">" described to the types of families and similar properties of members of a family but does not determine in which family they do exist, like proton- neutron form a doublet, π Mesons form a triplets ( charges -1,0,+1) and″ delta"(∂) hadrons form a quadruplet ( charges (-1,0,+1+2). After the discovery of strange quarks (s) in the 1950s attempts were made to incorporate strangeness into the classification system. This was because they assigned the hadrons to families with similar properties ( in particular with the spin and parity) but with different charges and strangeness. Strange hadrons weigh somewhat more than non strange siblings, so that strong interactions are not bound to strangeness, but they are near-sighted to allow us to group particles into families anyway. The concept of or notion of "Quarks " was thus introduced in 1964 by </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Marry Gelman</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ref</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">no 2</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> -: Gelman M , Physics letter vol8; page2141964) and </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Zweig</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ref no 3-: </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Zewig G - CERN preprint TH 401,page412, 1964) to explain why Baryons came only in multiplets of 1;8;10 and Mesons in multiplets of 9. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">They in their articles first proposed the classification to imagine that hadrons are composed of three types of fundamental particles called 'Quarks"</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">They first proposed that Baryons were made of three quarks (Q 3) and Mesons are made of Quarks and antiquarks</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">A </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">nutshell about Quarks flavours-:</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So all hadrons are definitely composed of small numbers of more fundamental particles called quarks. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Experiments with high energy electrons and neutrinos</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> made it possible in effective ways to take the x-ray of proton structure and it revealed that </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">protons do contain objects with exactly the properties of</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">quarks</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The quark possesses an unusual types of charge which in QCD called</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> " </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">color"</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> which operates in the same ways as the electrical charge. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The relativistic quantum field theory of colour induced force is called quantum chromodynamics (QCD).</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> By analogy with mathematically similar combinations and two types of flavours of quarks which are labelled as </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Up (u)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Down ( d) quarks</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Up(u) and Down (d) quarks are needed to make up both Neutrons and Protons</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">They move ( spin) inside the hadrons with an effective mass of about 0.33Gev.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">To explain the properties of heavier particles further quantum numbers (like strangeness,charm and beauty particles) must be assigned to Up and Down quarks and </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">their quarks flavours are known as "S" quarks ,"C"quarks and "B"quarks respectively</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ."</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The strange quarks" (S) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">with mass of 0.5Gev is needed to make up the strange particles which were discovered in cosmic rays in 1940.The "</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">charmed quarks"</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">c )</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> with a mass of 1.5 Gev is needed to make up </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">z/W bosons particles</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">."</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The bottom quarks" (b)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> with a mass of 4.8Gev and was found to make up </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Gamm(γ) particles</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. A further flavour of quark (T) or "</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Top quarks"</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> is predicted to form the symmetry arrangement and CERN scientists confirmed it in 1997.The evidence for Top quarks came through a dozen or so events contains either </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">W Bosons</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( seen via their decays into an electron or muon and a neutrinos) or one such W boson together with three or four sets of hadrons. These are believed to be due to productions of Top quarks antiquarks pairs. The collider detector facility ( CDF) events have distinctive Top and anti Top quarks features. For example many of them contained bottom quark or antiquark . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The CDF announced the mass of Top quarks in 171 ±16Gev</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. At the large electron positron collider ( LEP) the mass of many decay properties of Z bosons had been measured also enabling the mass of Top quarks 171±15Gev . Both the charm quantum numbers and strange numbers are conserved by strong and weak electromagnetic interaction. This means that charmed or strange particles must undergo a weak decay whose rate is determined by two factors: the weak interaction coupling constants and density of allowed final stage i.e. phage -space availability. The characteristic lifetime of strange particles decay are around 10*11 seconds.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The charmed particles are much heavier than the strange particles and charmed particles are much heavier than u,d,or s quarks</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">To explain simultaneously the "Symmetries and charges " of the observed hadrons the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">quarks are also required to have the electrical charges,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">which is a fraction of the electron charges "e".Thus an UP (u) and down quarks(d) have charges+2/3e and -1/3e respectively. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Thus a proton consist of 2 down ( d) and one up( u) quarks or</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> may be designed as d2,1u</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ref 3</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">-: Close E. G " introduction of quarks and protons " at page P3-88; Academic press New York ,1979). The </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">lambda</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">particles</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> (Λ or λ)) consist of one Up quarks,one strange quarks and one down quarks.(u1,s1,d1), similarly </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Omega</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">particles</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> (Ω) consist of 3 strange quarks or may be designed as (s3), </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Pion(π ) particles</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> consist of 1 up quarks and 1down anti quarks( 1u,-1d), </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">kaon particles</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> (1u,s1), </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">charmonium (J/psi meson) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> can be (1c,-c1), </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Bottomonium (</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">n2S+1LJ) particles ( b,-b). Similarly strange hadrons are made of using s quarks. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Meson</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> or iP particles are bound states of charm and anti charm quarks . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Although the quark model was very much indeed successful in classifying the observed hadrons,in the 1970s, still it became clear that the simple quark model was inadequate. In addition to quark flavour, quark must carry additional quantum numbers which are known as " color"</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">each quark flavour comes in a distinct color</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">there are as many as color as we thought. There are red, green and blue color .</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> So Up quarks are now denoted as ur,ug,up,ub. They are identical in all respects ( mass, charges, and so on) except in their colors. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Similarly colors are present in other quarks like in</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> down quarks ( dr; dg; db) for strange quarks (sr; sg; sb) for bottom quarks ( br;bg; bb) for Top quarks ( tr;tg:tb) and so on and so on . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So color was initially three types in the earliest universe ( even when nucleosynthesis did not start) , and they were Red, Green, Blue. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The existence of strongly interacting particles with spin ½ is the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">quarks particles that have half integral spin and as such they ( quarks) are known as Fermions. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> But the basic difference from other Fermions particles from the quarks is that </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">quarks carry extra quantum numbers " color" which the Fermions do not carry</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. The quarks as they carry these color and so hadrons are always colourless. </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Quarks are in spin motion </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the particles and even all the structures found in the universe are in spin motion but who started spinning is the big question: the Higgs fields? -: .</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Particles like electrons, neutrons, protons, and quarks are in right handed or in left handed spin movement. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In QCD, we believe that hadrons are built up from smaller building blocks of quarks bound together by QCD forces.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Protons contain several such quarks spinning in opposite directions. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Spin effects play a very important role in the very early stage of quark structure of hadrons</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Actually quark structure model gave the first satisfactory explanation of magnetic movement of the proton and neutron having their particles made from two kinds of flavours called up and down with electrical charges of +⅔ and-⅓ of the proton charges respectively.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The proton is thus made of 2u quarks and 1d quarks and neutron is made of 2d quarks and 1u quarks thus giving observed charges of+1 and 0.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Because all have the spin as proton,the right total spin for the proton and for the neutron is obtained by having the u and d quarks in opposite directions giving a total spin which is the difference between u-d quarks spin.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Electric charges spinning 0 in opposite directions have their magnetic movements all pointing in the same direction and added up to a large value. These explain why proton with a positive charge has a magnetic movement roughly three times the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Dirac value</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and neutron with no charges has magnetic movement corresponding roughly to double the Dirac value for a particle with negative charges</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The big question to present authors of this article is whether further sub & sub elementary particles in QED were possible than quark itself?</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Geonium</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> is a man made atom created in liquid helium temperature in ultra high vacuum from an individual electron in magnetic and electric trapping fields. For this atom the electron gyromagnetic ratio g=20,000,000,000110(60) has been measured in microwave spectroscopy experiments. After substraction of quantum electrodynamics shifts , The g-gDirac=11x10*-8 excess over the value g Dirac=2 for the theoretical Dirac point electron suggest for the electron of nature a corresponding excess radius Re-R, Dirac over the Dirac radius R Dirac=0 and so it must be a special structure ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ref 4-:</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Bhattacharya Rupak, Bhattacharya Ritwick, Mukherjee Dalia Bhattacharya Pranab Kumar "Sub2 quark particle possible in the origin of mass in early universe " , discussion in Extreme Astronomy.com). A </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">near Dirac radius Re~-10*-20 centimetres must be present . In the Big Bang cosmology a near zero rest mass particles are required in singularity point which indicates from nothing state ( zero mass) resulted a spontaneous quantum jump to give finally mass</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Higgs particles are now thought to give mass to a mass less particle in Higgs field </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ) in earliest big bang time and these particles and antiparticles were in ½ spin ( Dirac point particles). So far quarks particles and it's sub quark energy color and Higgs particles are discovered . In 1974, the Pakistan Physicist late Prof Abdul Salam ( Nobel laureate in physics) and his associates pictured the electron, a particle on the level of a quark as composed of three subquarks each 10*10 times heavier than electron in Gev mass, as like a proton is composed of three spin ½ particles.This is now </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">nomenclatured</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> as "</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Salam particles' according to late Prof Abdul</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Salam</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> (who received Nobel prize in physics as citizens of Pakistan).</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The big question remain to present authors is it possible to have sub2 quarks particles with zero rest mass in Gev temperature?"</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> . This particle must be sub-sub x quarks, particles less and less imperfect near Dirac particles held together by new stronger and stronger forces and with almost zero mass in Gev. Probably to the beginning of our universe in planck epoch such a particle existed where Higgs particles fused to give mass in Higgs fields</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Forces regulating our universe -: </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Now there are three important forces that regulate our observable four dimensional universe</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( space time is when taken as 4th dimension).</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">They are Gravitational forces, Electromagnetic strong forces and electromagnetic weak forces. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> gravitational force</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> is well understood classically since Newton's theory was propagated by Einstein. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But even today there is no satisfactory particle theory for the gravity in particle form except a " Graviton"(G) particle</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> (mass in Gev 0 < 6×10*−32 eV/c*2) . The effect of gravity is quiet negligible in experimental particle physics and </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Gravity is very important for large bodies.The electromagnetic force</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> holds atoms together and control the behavior of matter.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The strong force</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> is responsible for holding the nucleus together and </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">weak electromagnetic force</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> is responsible for beta decay and other rare process. Now once it was known that hadrons are composed of quarks ,it became possible to construct the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">theory of strong force.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> It is the force that rather acts between quarks which hold together to form hadrons generating nuclear binding. In QED ,for so long the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">electromagnetic forces</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> were generated by exchange of photons between electrically charged particles. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Weak forces</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> were generated by exchange of new particles H, W,and Z particles. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But in QCD , the inter quark force requires another particle called "Gluons' ' in gluons fields.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Both the quarks and Gluons carry color charge. So Gluon exchange generates Gluon -Gluon force as well Gluon -quark or quark-quark forces</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> . What are the Gluon particles in QCD? </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Are then gloun sub -sub quark particles?.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In certain circumstances quarks radiate energetic particles further,which give rise to characteristic controlled </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">YETS of Gluon</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">particles. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Such YETS were discovered in electron proton colliders called </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">PETRA</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> in Hamburg which revealed the existence of Gluon particles in their Nature. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Gluons are theorised really massless particles with spin 1 and negative parity </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">( charge 0, spin 1, mass in Gev/c*2 is 0 force mediated Strong force) . Gluons are mixtures of two colors, such as red and antigreen, which constitutes their color charge. The</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> evidence of Gloun is more quantitative and theoretical for evidence for quarks particles</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.About half of the momentum of the nucleon is carried by quarks while objects which do not interact either electromagnetically or weakly,must then carry the remaining momentum. It is the Gluon. Gluons can be from quarks by strong interacting process. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Perhaps most direct evidence for Gluon particles came from observation of jet like structures in high energy annihilation of e+e- experiment.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Colliding beams of e+ and e- particles have been observed to annihilate into hadrons, most of which were found from two YET-like structures in PETRA experiment. The Gluons or Glue balls can be also identified in R ( Rupak particles) particles . Their measurements of the lack of electromagnetic couplings of R particles led the present authors to hypothesize that R particles (Rupak particles) consist of Gluon bundles. In QED photons transmit the electromagnetic forces . Following the discovery of </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Psi( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">An electrically neutral meson having a mass 7,213 times that of the electron and a mean lifetime of approximately 1 X 10*-20 seconds, composed, like the J/psi particle, of a charm-anticharm quark pair particles)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> , </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">a theory released that implied that radiative Beta (β) decay of Psi particles should be the good sources of Gluon matter( in </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ordinary matter there should be existence of Glue balls also.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ) Matter here is made of gluons as most finest particles, but obviously then matter is not composed of only quarks as finest one. Rather we can say R particles are prima facie candidates for resonating Gluons </span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Cosmic Strings </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">With this very superficial little background knowledge of particle physics, let us now discuss the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Super heavy string theory of galaxies evolution </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The main alternative theory of origin of structures of the universe are cosmic strings or super heavy strings which are predicted to form in the early Universe by Grand Unified Theory ( GUT) in inflationary Big Bang model . Loops of cosmic strings were actually the seeds of galaxies. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">They were super heavy strings,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">formed at</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">phase transition or condensation that took place when</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> the universe cooled after GUTS in the very early universe . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Kibble (</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> NL in physics) had suggested that GUTS strings played an important role in the evolution of the universe and the strings provided the inhomogeneity leading to formation of galaxies. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the very early universe strings were predicted to be formed at symmetry breaking phase transition by those Grand Unified Theories,in which vacuum had the appropriate topology </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Cosmic strings are the configuration of the matter fields which owe their topology of the space of degenerate vacuum , produced by the phase transition in the early Universe . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Let us ignore the normal structure of the strings and treat them as one dimensional objects with tension</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. In the resting frame of strings,the mass per unit length ∞ to tension . The equality of the line of density and the tension caused the typical velocity associated with large vibration on the strings to be close to the speed of light . The strings can not end but can either close on themselves or can be extended to infinity (∞). </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The closed strings formed the string loops</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. As with any objects in tension, strings would also accelerate, so as to try to become straight .Damping of the strings motion was due to their gravitational interaction with other matters , those become negligible as soon as the strings were formed. Strings that extended outside the horizon of the universe were conformably stretched by the cosmic expansion. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Thus at a given epoch these strings were straight on their length and scale, but were smaller then the horizon size, but was quite convoluted on a large scale then this. The typical velocity was associated with straightening of a string and was close to speed of light and the velocity field of the string extending outside the horizon was relativistic and approximately constant over scale much smaller than a horizon size.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Once a loop entered the horizon it no longer expanded but rather started to oscillate with a period comparable to light travel time across it.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The motion was damped by gravitational radiation causing the size and period of loops to decrease approximately linearly with time. The fractional decrease in size , period,and mass of the strings in one oscillation was given by equation Guw where G is Gravitational constant. A </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">string will decrease to zero size in a finite amount of time losing its energy by only gravitational radiation</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. The distribution of strings in our universe were not quite so often well understood</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. After the phase transition the strings were formed in a random network of self avoiding curves/ loops.Some of the strings were in closed loops and some were as infinite</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">strings.The</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">distribution of strings so happened that a constant number of loops entered the horizon</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. If the infinite strings would simply straighten out , then numbers of open strings across the horizon-sized volume would also increase with passing time and strings would soon come out to dominate the density of the universe . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But it didn't happen.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Velenkin ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ref no 5</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">-: velenkin A, Physics Review D23; P852: 1981) showed that the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">geometry produced</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">by the gravitational field near a length of straight string is that of Minkowski space with three dimensional ( 3D)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> l </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">wedge</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> taken out of each space, like sliced . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The vertex of the wedge lies along the length of the strings and angle subtended by missing wedge lies in the frame of the strings and is equated as ∂πGu. The</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> two exposed faces of the strings thus could be identified. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Thus space time remained everywhere except along the strings,where it was highly curved</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> .If Gu<<2,then the stress energy of the strings would produce only small ( lenier) perturbation from the metric of the rest of the universe. Because the matter hadrons in the universe didn't produce significant perturbation from the Minkowski metric space,on scale,less than horizon, the gravitational field at a point ,much closer to a length of a string would be essentially then the same as gravitational field at similarly located point in Minkowski Space. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the rest frame of the strings ,all elementary fundamental particles were, when passing,the strings deflated by an angle 8πGu with</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">respect to all particles passing on the other side of the strings.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The magnitude of discontinuity in temperature across the strings ( while passing of particles) was ∂T/T=8πGb where G =Gravitational constant ,b=transverse velocity of strings which typically was close to unity. This jump of temperature persisted on angular distance away from the strings, corresponding to the present angular size of the radius of curvature of the strings.The magnitude of temperature jump was then independent of Red shift (Z) at which light rays reaching to us, passed by the strings. If</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> we calculate the general properties of microwave sky anisotropy in string mode then let us assume that microwave photons were last scattered at Redshift Z=1s.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> So </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">in a perfectly homogeneous universe the matter became mostly neutral and optically detectable than at Redshift Z ~1000.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> However in an universe,with strings, there will be large amplitudes in homogeneity on a small scale and the heat output from objects forming at or before Z/τee may re-ionize the plasma. If the plasma were fully ionized then Z1s>10 and we have 1000>Z1s>10,the angle subtended by a horizon sized volume space at Z1c is θ1s*-½<<1. One would expect to see on a round patch of sky of strings per horizon volume at Red shift Z will project one length of string of angular size θ if z<1s. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">These strings will then oscillate moving relativistically as they were unable to straighten themselves out of this length scale</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.In modern </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Gauge theories</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> of fundamental interaction of vacuum was far from nothing. Rather it is now recognised as a dynamical object that was in a different state. The state of vacuum affected the properties such as masses and interaction of particles put into it. </span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">vacuum was created -:</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Although the vacuum is thought to be in a </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ground state,with the lowest state of energy, this state has not always been the same. Thus in early universe when the particles components ( ordinarily matter and radiation) was at very high temperature,the vacuum adjusted it's state in doing so , modified the properties of particles so as to minimise the free energy of entire system</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( vacuum plus particles) i.e </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the vacuum went into higher energy state in order to lower the energy of hot plasma by even greater ammount</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.As the universe cooled to keep the entire system at the lowest possible energy,at a given temperature,the vacuum had to change eventually ,ending up to its present state which is nearby the true or zero temperature vacuum. It was possible in early universe that as the universe expanded, the cooling happened too rapidly for the vacuum to find its true ground state and the vacuum was frozen into ground state with defects.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Defects that probably could occur in a three dimensional space could be zero dimensional ( Monopoles),Two dimensional ( domain walls) or one dimensional ( Strings). The strings are so microscopic objects.In most cases of cosmological interest they have no ends and are either infinitely long or they are in closed loops . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">At</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">GUT, the strong,weak and electromagnetic forces behaved as if they had equal strength much as line defects found in crystals.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">They formed as a network across the space time.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The GUTs predict that strings were formed at a temperature of about 19*15 to~ 10*16 Gev, at cosmological time of 10*~35 second.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The cosmic strings were formed at the mass scale of GUTs symmetry breaking ( Mx-2x10*15Gev) was typified by mass per unit length uG/c*2~2x10*6 in …… ( G = Gravitational constant,c= speed of light which is corresponding to u = </span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The strings were formed with a mass per unit length of about 10*20 kg*-1.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Because of their enormous tension e/G the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">net work of the strings were formed in phase transition</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.In this theory the strings contributed only a small fraction of mass of the universe.The</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Galaxies were formed by accreacting of ordinary matter around the strings.The strings were attached by subsequent expansion of universe on wave on a given scale and began to oscillate then .The strings underwent oscillation in which transverse inertia acted as weight and the restoring factors were provided by longitudinal tension of the Strings. The gravitational fields of these string loops caused accretion of matter around them .</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Brosche PG in the journal of Astrophysics, stated that angular momentum of an astronomical object is proportional directly to square of mass and constant of proportionality is comparable to string theories,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">which suggests that the universe had evolved through hierarchical breaking of rotating or oscillating strings and the angular momentum with mass between various classes of different objects ranging from planets to superclusters</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ref no 6 B</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">rosche PZ " j.astrophysics vol 57; P 143; 1963) . For the past four decades a variety of Grand Unified Theory ( GUTs) had been developed to unify the strong and weak interactions at an energy scale of 10*16Gev .</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">GUTs are gauge invariant point fields theory of</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Yang and Mills, the two Nobel laureates in physics </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">which do not incorporate gravitational forces</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and henceforth there remains few theoretical constraints on the possible internal symmetry group as per these authors of this article.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Super symmetry? -: </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The most favourite GUT theories are based on the special unitary group Su(5), the special orthogonal Group SO(10) or the exceptional Group E6. In such GUT theories quarks particles and leptons particles make up three of these families that are unified in one' family. Super symmetries are an important ingredient of GUTs. It is symmetry that relates to Fermions and particles of different spins. But Supper symmetry is not an internal symmetry of the universe, but amounts to an extension of space-time in super- space that includes extra spinorial anti-commuting co-ordinates as well as ordinary coordinates. Super symmetry requires particles such as s quarks , s leptons, winos,zinos,R particles which have yet to be discovered. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Super Gravity theories are </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">point field theories that incorporates local or gauged supper</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">symmetry and thereby enlarging Einstein theory of relativity</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. The basic idea of gauge theory is a continuous symmetry or global invariance properties of </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Lagaragian</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">field theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> that can be made into a local invariance by gauge field theory. This means that given a field theory, which proposes symmetry such as U1(1) ,Su(2),Su(3) or any other U group. The theory can be extended in a gauge theory which has the symmetry at each part in the space time individually. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The new symmetry is then called Gauge symmetry because it implies we can choose our measuring standard Gauge to differentiate throughout space time without changing the physics of the theory. The most familiar example of a Gauge theory is electromagnetism . In QED </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, the quantum field theory of electromagnetic interaction are charged particles and </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">photon / Boson is the most successful gauge theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.The behavior of a relativistic string moving in space time differs significantly from that of a point particle. Unlike a point particle , a classical relativistic string has an infinite number of vibrational modes with arbitrarily high frequencies and angular momentum. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This means that in quantum theory , a string has an infinite number of states with masses and spins which increases without limit. </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">String theory developed in the 1970s as model of strong interaction physics. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">A meson has thought of as a string with a quark attached to one end while an antiquark to the other end.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The string tension (T) was supposed to be ~1Gev*2 and </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the excited states of the strings were supposed to be hadrons</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. The main theories were " Boson theory" which only described Bosons and the spinning theories that incorporated Bosons as well Fermions . These early string theory had several theoretical inconsistencies according to present authors of this article, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">because the strings ground states always turned out to be Tachyons </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Reference no 6-: </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Rupak Bhattacharya, Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya, Upasana Bhattacharya, Ritwik Bhattacharya Rupsa Bhattacharya, Dalia Mukherjee etal 'Tachyon faster than light particles exist in our universe or an imaginary mathematical particles " International journals of Astronomy Astrophysics and Space Science vol 2; no 3; June 2015; page 12-29). Superstring theory that evolved from spinning string theory that incorporated Supersymmetry and had no tachyonic ground state. Superstring theories hence offered the possibility of constructing a consistent quantum theory that unifies all interactions including gravity and natural mass scale set by string tension (T) at Planck's scale ( T*½=10*9Gev).The excited states were so massive that they could be taken to be infinitely heavy ( like superclusters of galaxies) and the theory can be approximated by effective point field theory of the mass-less state only. At the energy scale below the Planck scale, the string looks like a point. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">One of the constraints in any string theory is that all string theory contains a massless spin 1 and spin 2 particles which are associated with Yang and Mills Gauge Boson and Gravitation</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Furthermore the original Bosonic string theory required 26 space time dimensions where as superstrings theory demands only ten (10 )</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">dimensional space time.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">We live only in a three (03) dimensional universe and we can best imagine four (04)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">dimensional space time</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Then where are these extra six (06) dimensions in superstring theory or extra twenty two (22) dimensions in Bosonic string theory? Maybe these dimensions are curled up or coiled up and finally became very small by compactification in superstring theory or may be hidden in black hole.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Types of superstring theories -: </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">There are three types of superstring</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> theories . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Type 1 super string theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> describes the dynamic of open strings that have their free end points. The strings here carry quantum numbers in the n dimensional, defining representation of a classical group G-S0(a) or the simplistic group USP(a) at their endpoints SU(a). This is similar to the way in which quarks quantum numbers were incorporated in the original string picture of Mesons. </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The string is locally invariant under two Super Symmetries n=2 and the free ends boundaries conditions break down this just to one( N=1) supersymmetry. The mass-less open strings state is the usual state of SuperSymmetry of Yang Mills theory in ten (10) dimensions with Gauge group G . The two open strings can interact when two ends touch and join to form one open string or co inversely one string can split in two. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">One important thing is that the two end points of a simple string can join to form a closed string and thus massless state of a closed string forms a super Gravity and don't carry yang Mills quantum numbers </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Type II superstring theory only involves the closed strings . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This can have an orientation associated with the fact </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">that waves can run around the strings in two possible directions. The two orientations allow for two chiral supersymmetries. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So these theories are invariant under ten( 10)dimensions. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In type II (a ) theory the two superchargers have opposite chirality and so the theory has actually no chirality and therefore it is not a very important theory. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">It is rather a low energy point field theory whose dimensions are D=10.n=2 </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">non chiral super Gravity</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Type II(b) theory has super charges of the some chirality.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> It is also low energy point field theory, the limit is the chiral dimension D=10 n=2 super Gravity. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This theory is a remarkable theory in being Chiral and yet not having any gravitational anomalies and IIa very important thine of any superstring theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> is that it must give rise in observed chirality of our three dimensional world which means it must maintain parity with laws of physics</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Type III super string theory ,also called Heteriotic string theory ór Bosonic string theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> .It is also based on closed strings only, although it carries a Yang Mills Gauge Group G and has super symmetry n =1. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In this theory, instead of Yang Mills charges residue at the ends of the string there is a charge density along the whole string</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> (</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ref no 7-: </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Gross David , Hurvey j Martinec F, Rohm R et al Physics Review Letters vol 54; P 502; 1984 David Gross awarded Nobel prize in physics for this published work ) . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This type of superstring by David Gross et al based on either E8xE8 of type I superstring theory or S0(32). It has been speculated in this theory, if the Gauge group G is E8xE8 -the E8 symmetry may persist even in dimensionally reduced theory and in that case there will be creation of two types of matter whose interaction will be described as E8. One type of matter will exactly mirror the other i.e. matter and antimatter or shadow matters will be created in this theory . This shadow matter or antimatter interacts gravitationally with ordinary matter creating huge bursts of energy and radiations </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But the Heteriotic string theory involves originally twenty six (26) dimensions with sixteen (16) dimensions being maximum tours of one or other of two groups and thus this theory leaves us últimately in ten (10) dimensional space time. </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">It was again Kulza in 1922 and Oscar klem in 1926 who jointly showed that if a person assumed general relativity in five dimensions, where one dimension was curled up , the resulting theory then would have a four dimensional theory of electromagnetism and Gravity. Electromagnetism energy there remains as Gravity in the curled up 5th dimension. Wien had identified the momentum of particles moving around the 5th dimension as gravitational charge . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Bosonic string theory ( type III) requires 26 space time dimensions when super string theory contains 10 space time dimensions. So in string theory at least there are six (6) or seven (7) extra dimensional space time remaining</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. One can imagine that these extra dimensions are curled up to form a small manifold and remarkable such six or seven dimensions compactification can produce a world remarkably like our own World in which the shape of extra dimensions determine the matter content and forces of nature as seen in four dimensional observers. </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So the strings could occur as vortex in Gauge theories in anomalies manner in the formation of Abrikosov megantic filaments in super conditions and such a vortex was formed in phase transition in the very early universe in the Higgs fields. . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The strings then broke down or chopped of mesh at speed of 10*8 seconds after the Big Bang</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.This spontaneous broken theory with Higgs fields says 1M* 2X/4£</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">G∫πn*2∫G where π is true vacuum expectations value of Higgs field and MX Mass of the associated vector boson G=g*2/4π is the Gauge field coupling constants ( G is Gravitational fraction for the Abelian Higgs Model .If MH=MX where MH is the mass of scalar Higgs particles' then ∫G=1 then electro week with u=19*2and MX=100Gev and the string mass Ucw~-2x10*-5 g cm*1 ~=2x10*-33 c*2/G . For Grand unification strings alpha G ~10*-2and MX ~10*-15Gev yelding uGv gamma ~2X10*21GCM*-1~=2X10*-7c*2/G where C is Speed of light ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ref no 8 </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Velkin A Physics Review Letter Vol 46; Page 1169; 1981) which shows that value of u for astronomical strings much closer to GUTs strings.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Evolution of Galaxies stars planets from cosmic strings -: </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So Brosche and Tassie (</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">reference no 9</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> LT Tassie Nature vol 323 P 40 1986) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">theory suggested a very different evolution of the universe and Galaxies. According to them , some times in the early past of the universe, strings constituted all or nearly all of mass of Universe and that astronomical objects we today see originally formed from the strings in such a way that a large piece of string which eventually corresponded to Superclusters galaxies ( it contains some millions of galaxies ) broke into smaller pieces of strings corresponding to clusters of galaxies . These pieces of strings in turn further broke into further smaller pieces of strings corresponding to galaxies . They even broke into further smaller pieces of strings to stars and so on and so on. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">At each stage of hierarchy breaking of strings the new pieces might have some vibrational energy and the vibrational energy was large compared with mass to come on. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Eventually the pieces of strings transformed either by phase transition or some form of rapid breaking into ordinary matter and thus became planet satellites, asteroids etc that we see now</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> . But many other theory say that seeding of galactic matter and radiation densities, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the universe passed the state of equal matter and antimatter and radiation</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">densities</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> some about 10*11seconds (30000 years) later than galactic string loops chopped off mashes after 10*8 seconds after the initial Big Bang .</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So the idea that super heavy strings were formed at phase transition in the very early universe provides an explanation of the origin of galaxies. GUTs formed strings at symmetry breaking phase transitions in the early Universe in which vacuum ( voids) was appropriate topology</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. They have well known analogues in condensed matter physics. Much as the line defects the strings formed a network across the whole space . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In some theories strings were formed after a period of</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">inflation</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. They were then stretched by subsequent expansion of the universe and waves on a given scale began to oscillate as the scale entered the particle's horizon. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Wherever the strings crossed itself,an exchange of partners occurred and produced crossed oscillating loops of strings with long life times. The gravitational force of these loops caused matter to accrue around strings.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Thus the strings could be the primordial density fluctuation needed in the early Universe to explain eventual formation of galaxies.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Now the question stands how such strings would produce density fluctuation on a broad range of scale which was responsible for formation of galaxies? </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Galaxy formation from the dark matter was an extremely active area of study</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. From the Big Bang nucleosynthesis ,it was known that </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Baryons accounted for less than 15% of critical cosmological density.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Observation of the dynamics of galaxies suggests that matter clustered with galaxies is 60% of the critical density ( K) and the lower end of observed range is consistent with the Baryon limit. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Thus the dynamical Dark Matter could be Baryon</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">?There are however two arguments which drive us to look for other candidates.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The first is inflation and the second is anisotropy of 3K microwave background.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Inflation was the only way of explaining several otherwise extraordinary initial conditions of the universe.But for fine tuning of inflation required a critical density of the universe . Thus at least 85% of the universe (15% were Baryon) could not</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">be the Baryons matter and more than 60% of the matter of this universe so didn't cluster into galaxies</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.The density of the matter on the universe must be greater than baryonic upper limit . To make things a little more difficult,it is said that " the special correlation functions of rich clusters of galaxies had revealed strong clustering of very large scale up to 150 MPC" .This correlation functions of clustering of galaxies was 18 times stronger than the special correlation functions of galaxies. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">It was also found that the largest scale of the universe seems to look filamentous ( strings are here turned filaments ) with large vacuum ( voids) and large clumps .</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">With the GUTs an excellent way appeared to produce the distribution of size of universe. In normal generation and application of GUTs ( a fluctuational spectrum with equal powering all scales formed naturally) it was assumed that there was no special correlation between large scale and small clumps.They each had random probability of occurring anywhere in the universe. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">On the other hand it means that strings are still produced in some spectrum,somewhere and in some size. Different proposals so had been put to solve the problem </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">but no models could solve it as long as it was assumed that primordial fluctuation had random phases. For example a model based on Neutrinos produced both critical density and large scale structures like filaments voids clusters correlation functions but didn't account for early formation of galaxies ( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ref no 10 Bachcall N j astrophysics vol270; P20;1983)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.Models evoking heavy or slow moving particles[ like Gev mass photinos, gravitons, axions, planetary mass black holes] however fits the small scale structure galaxy correlation functions, formation of time and so forth as well as building hierarchical to yield clusters , but it do not allow critical density of the universe to be reached. Even the hybrid model with low mass and huge mass ions also runs into problems, because low mass particles smear out of the small structure of the universe.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">A more natural solution of the problem might be non random phases of the string model. JE Peebles Nobel laureate in physics ( Ref no 11 JE Peebles Nature vol 311.P517;1984) noted that non random phases of string model of the universe yields large scale filaments and voids as superheavy strings attract galaxies and clusters and give string- clusters -strings correlation.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Work by JE Peebles showed that a model based on clustering of galaxies about filaments ( here strings) fit higher 3and 4 points correlation functions for galaxies as well as hierarchical clustering. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This model also enables density growth in some areas without producing a large universal background anisotropy and so could enable Baryons to be Dark Matter on galaxy and cluster state with non baryonic stuff being a critical density background. The degree of Random to non random phases in such a model depends upon the density of strings in the space . In the limit of space being completely filled with strings the string picture also give random phases</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Even if string densities are large enough to randomised phases their mere existence would still alter galaxy in formation , calculation, because it were the strings rather than matter that would carry the fluctuations.</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">The universe's rhymes ( References 12) —</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The appearance of all similar structures in different areas of physics—underlie the ways </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> theory can potentially unifies gravity with the other forces of nature and thus can eliminate the ultraviolet divergences that plague quantum gravity. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">String theory has, even among theoretical physicists, the reputation of being mathematically intimidating. But many of its essential elements can actually be described simply. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Our this article aims to answer a few basic questions about the string theory and evolution of our most distant galaxies in the earliest time of the observable universe.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> 1) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">How does string theory generalize standard quantum field theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">? 2) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Why is string theory forcing us to unify general relativity with the other forces of the universe, while standard quantum field theory makes it so difficult to incorporate general relativity? 3) Why are there no ultraviolet divergences in string theory? 4) What happens then to Einstein’s conception of</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">spacetime in string theory?</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Any physicist who studied at a very high level of physics is aware that </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">although physics—does not precisely repeat itself, it does rhyme, with similar structures appearing in different areas. We can say that Einstein's</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> gravitational waves are therefore analogous to electromagnetic waves or to the water waves at the surface of a pond when a stone is thrown in water .</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> We authors here will begin with one of the universe's rhymes: </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">an analogy between quantum gravity and the theory of a single particle.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Even though we do not actually understand it well, quantum gravity is supposed to be some kind of theory in which, from a macroscopic point of view, we average, in a quantum mechanical sense, over all possible spacetime geometries. (We do not really know to what extent that description is valid microscopically in string theory.). </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Gravity plays a more important role always in macroscopic objects rather than it plays on microscopic or in a single particle</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. The averaging if performed, in the simplest case, with a weight factor exp (iI/ℏ), where I is the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Einstein–Hilbert action:</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">I=1/16πG ∫d*4x√g (R−2Λ).(*= As super script ie to the power of )...... (</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no1</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">) where G is Newton’s constant, g is determinant of the metric tensor, R is curvature scalar, Λ is a cosmological constant, and d*4x is the spacetime volume element.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Let us try now to make such a theory with one spacetime dimension instead of classical four space time dimensions.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The choices for a one-manifold are quite limited:</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Picture (1)</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span></a></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><img border="0" data-original-height="2048" data-original-width="1536" height="145" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj61ZG4x6MfbNn7K3eRwxyRhRKbw2gs3i2uItfZuPGNpstkrZRRC3o1QQBl7-_3VhzqIY6mbuX_hkfbQrgflCzu_pIO0N72GkGRr7tym_fiTiLrAhmNPT2LUj9B3uS3W19zah9uiNUGSBeiVb9sn5thKAlbN6crwswLH9nBGA9gggITxsOpTzaeEBws/w109-h145/IMG_20220726_110125.jpg" width="109" /></a></span></span></div><span style="font-family: Arial;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /><span style="font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></a></span><p></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a></span></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a></span></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></a></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">⁹</a></span></div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1464" data-original-width="2152" height="136" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoRR_eX4zaTkCxWYJm0x_Vz4Xc0U6NbneDpFiRR1Ixk7W42YL_3hO7CXps6RmhQTK7pY5hg9QguwdlcygnEiJsKoNT2KxuyraaSafVJea9XPEnWrrGyERboBbRYdxfeFv1iX3M__tgHiSfhAU9ZRlsjaUGkr9OcsiiFaPI6dVGHYGf4IfABVrFqfOS/w200-h136/IMG_20220726_184257.jpg" width="200" /></span></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></a></span><p></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Moreover, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the curvature of the scalar field is then identically zero in one dimension</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, and all that’s left of the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Einstein–Hilbert action is the cosmological constant.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> However, Einstein’s fundamental insights were not tied to the specific </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Einstein–Hilbert action.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Rather, they were in the broader sense that spacetime can vary</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">dynamically and that the laws of the universe are generally covariant, or invariant under arbitrary diffeomorphisms (coordinate transformations) of spacetime. </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> By applying those insights, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">we can make a nontrivial quantum gravity theory in one dimension provided we include matter fields.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Adding matter in scalar field -:</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The simplest of matter fields are scalar fields X**I, where I = 1, … , D.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> (** Is underscript )</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">The standard general relativistic action for scalar fields then is</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">I=∫dt√g [1/2D∑I=1 g*tt (dX**l/dt)*2*−1/2m*2],......(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> 2)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">where g**tt is a 1 × 1 metric tensor, and the Λ term has been replaced now with m*2/2.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Let us now introduce the canonical momentum P**I = dX**I/dt. The Einstein field equation—which is the equation of motion obtained by varying the action I with respect to g— is just g*tt D∑I=1P2/I+m* 2=0. ……(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no 3)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">We if pick the gauge g*tt = 1, so the equation is P*2 + m*2 = 0,(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> 4) with P*2 = ∑IP I*2. Quantum mechanically (in units with h= 1), PI = −i∂/∂**XI, and </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the meaning of the equation P*2 + m*2 = 0 is that the wave function Ψ(X),</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> where X is the set of all X**I, must be annihilated by the differential operator that corresponds to P*2 + m*2. Then</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">(− D∑I=1 ∂*2/∂X*2** I</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">+m*2)Ψ(X)=0. ….(.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no5)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This is an equation—the relativistic Klein–Gordon equation in D dimensions—but in Euclidean signature, in which time and space are on equal footing</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. To get a sensible physical interpretation, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">we should now try to reverse the kinetic energy of one of the scalar fields</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> XI so that the action becomes</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">I=∫dt√g{½g*tt [−(dX0/dt)*2+D−1∑i=1(dXi/dt)*2]−1/2m*2}....(.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no 6)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Now we know that the wave function obeys a Klein–Gordon equation in Lorentz signature:</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">and thus</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">(∂*2/∂X*2 0−D−1∑i=1∂*2/∂X*2i+m*2)Ψ(X)=</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">0……(equation no 7)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So we have found an exactly soluble theory of quantum gravity in one dimension space time that describes a spin-0 particle of zero (0 ) rest mass m propagating in D-dimensional Minkowski spacetime</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Actually, we can replace Minkowski spacetime by any D-dimensional spacetime M with a Lorentz (or Euclidean) signature metric GIJ, the action being then</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">I=∫dt√g(1/2gttGIJ dX*I/dt dXl/dt−1/2 m*2).......(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no 8</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Figure 1a</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><img border="0" data-original-height="1464" data-original-width="2152" height="136" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwjYUyn2ZFCs0uJMGQ-ZElxPgidwckIwMWWdkDcX1XyVeIUbN6sWMvxdnSekbcTBkfweslfo6eTOyOFp90QL5Gzd9SBcKhcZ-Drlj-cniSmB1BFE9vlK5KXJwJ2QwBL1XjYaUZOOt6cwvSI4kif2cyFtacRTDxolxA28jT1gp3Knia8nGGrB5YM6dM/w200-h136/IMG_20220726_184348.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></div><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></a><p></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Figure 1a caption</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.[ A </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">graph with trivalent vertices. </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">The natural path integral to consider is one in which the positions x1, … , x4 of the four external particles are fixed, and the integration is over everything else. A convenient first step is to evaluate an integral in which the positions y1, … , y4 of the vertices are also fixed. This Feynman diagram can generate an ultraviolet divergence in the limit that the proper-time parameters τ1, … , τ4 in the loop all vanish.]</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">From here on, summation over repeated indices is implied. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The equation obeyed by the wave function is now the massive Klein–Gordon equation in any curved spacetime</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> M:(−G*IJ D/DX*I D/DX*J+m*2)Ψ(X)=0,...( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> 9)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">where </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">D </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">represents covariant differentiation. </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Just to make things more familiar, let us authors further go back to the case of flat spacetime . Let we calculate the probability amplitude for a particle to start at one point x in spacetime and end at another point y.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">We can do it so by evaluating a </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Feynman path</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">integral in our quantum gravity model</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. The path integral can be done over all metrics g(t) and scalar fields XI(t) on the one-manifold with the condition that X(t) is equal to x at one end and to y at the other.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The process of evaluating the path integral in our </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">quantum gravity model</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> is to integrate over the metric on the one-manifold, modulo diffeomorphisms. But up to diffeomorphism, the one-manifold has only one invariant, its total length τ, which we will interpret as the elapsed proper time. In our gauge g*tt = 1, a one-manifold of length τ is described by a parameter t that covers the range 0 ≤ t ≤ τ. Now on the one-manifold, we have to integrate over all paths X(t) that start at x at t = 0 and end at y at t = τ. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">That is the basic Feynman integral of quantum mechanics with the Hamiltonian being H = ½(P*2 + m*2).</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">According to Feynman, the result is the matrix element of</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> exp(−τH) is</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">G(x,y;τ)=∫d*Dp/(2π)*D exp [ip⋅(y−x)]exp[−τ/2 (p*2+m*2)]..... </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no( 10)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"> But we have to also remember to do the gravitational part of the path integral, which in the present context means to integrate over τ.The integral over τ gives our final answer:</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">G(x,y)=∫*∞0dτ(G(x,y;τ)=∫d*Dp/(2π)*D exp[ip⋅(y -x)]2/p*2+m*2…(.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> 11) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This formula is the output of the complete path integral—an integral over metrics g(t) and paths X(t) with the given endpoints, modulo diffeomorphisms —in our quantum gravity model.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The function G(x, y) is the standard Feynman propagator in Euclidean signature, apart from a convention-dependent normalization factor. Moreover, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">an analogous derivation in Lorentz signature (for both the spacetime M and the particle world line) gives the correct Lorentz-signature Feynman propagator.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So we have now already interpreted a free particle in D-dimensional spacetime in terms of 1D quantum gravity</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">can we include interactions?</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> There is actually a perfectly natural way. There are not a lot of smooth one-manifolds, but there is a large supply of singular one-manifolds in the form of graphs, such as the one in figure 1. Our quantum-gravity action makes sense on such a graph. We simply take the same action that we used before, summed over all the line segments that make up the graph.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Now to do the quantum-gravity path integral, we have to integrate over all metrics on the graph, up to diffeomorphism. The</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> only invariants are the total lengths or proper times of each of the segments. Some of the lines in figure 1 have been labeled by length or proper-time variables τi.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">The natural amplitude to compute is one in which we hold fixed the positions x1, … , x4 of the graph’s four external particles and integrate over all the τi and over the paths the particles follow on the line segments. To evaluate such an integral, it is convenient to first perform a computation in which we hold fixed the positions y1, … , y4 of the vertices in the graph. That means all endpoints of all segments are labeled. The computation that we have to perform on each segment is the same as before and gives the Feynman propagator. The final integration over y1, … , y4 imposes momentum conservation at each vertex. Thus we arrive at Feynman’s recipe for computing the amplitude associated with a Feynman graph—a Feynman propagator for each line and an integration over all momenta subject to momentum conservation.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">A</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">more perfect rhyme-:</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">We have arrived at one of nature’s rhymes.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> If</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> we imitate in one dimension what we can expect it to do in four dimensions to describe quantum gravity</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">we shall end up with something that is ordinary quantum field theory in a possibly curved spacetime</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. In our example in figure 1, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the ordinary quantum field theory is scalar ϕ3 theory because of the particular matter system we started with and because our graph had cubic vertices</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Quartic vertices, will give ϕ4 theory, and a different matter system will give fields of different spins</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Many or maybe all quantum field theories in D dimensions can be derived in that sense from quantum gravity in one dimension.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">There is actually a much more perfect rhyme if we repeat the procedure in two dimensions—that is, for a string instead of a particle. We immediately run into the fact that a two-manifold Σ can be curved: </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Figure </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">On a related note, 2D metrics are not all locally equivalent under diffeomorphisms. A 2D metric in general is a 2 × 2 symmetric matrix constructed from three functions: </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">g**ab=( g11/g21 g12/g22),g**21=g**12…</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">..</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no( 12)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> A transformation of the 2D coordinates σ, generated by σ*a→σ*a+h(σ),a=1,2……(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no 13) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">,can remove only two functions, leaving the curvature scalar as an invariant. All those suggest that the integral over 2D metrics will not resemble what we found in the 1D case. But now we notice the following. The natural analog of the action that we used in one dimension is the general relativistic action for scalar fields in two dimensions, namely</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">I=∫d*2σ√gg*abG**IJ∂X*I/∂σ**a/∂X"J/ ∂σ**b.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">…..(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no 14) . </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But this is conformally invariant, that is, it is invariant under a </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Weyl transformation</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> of the metric gab → eϕgab for any real function ϕ on Σ. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This is true only in two dimensions (and only if there is no cosmological constant, so we now omit that term in going to two dimensions).</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Requiring Weyl invariance as well as diffeomorphism invariance is enough to make any metric gab on Σ locally trivial (locally equivalent to δab), similar to what we said for one-manifolds.</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Figure </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Some very pretty 19th-century mathematics now comes</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">into play</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. A</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> two-manifold whose metric is given up to</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> a </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Weyl transformation is called a Riemann surface.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As in the 1D case, a Riemann surface can be characterized up to diffeomorphism by finitely many parameters.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> There are two big differences: The parameters are now complex rather than real, and their range is restricted in a way that leaves no room for an </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ultraviolet divergence. We</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> will return to that last point later.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But first, let us take a look at the relation between the 1D parameters and the 2D ones.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> A metric on the Feynman graph in figure 2a depends, up to diffeomorphism, on three real lengths or proper-time parameters τ1, τ2, and τ3. If the graph is “thickened” into a two-manifold, as suggested by the figure, then a metric on that two-manifold depends, up to diffeomorphism and Weyl transformation, on three complex parameters τ̂1, τ̂2, and τ̂3.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"> Figure 2b gives another illustration of the relation between a Feynman graph and a corresponding Riemann surface.</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Figure 2. Caption </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><img border="0" data-original-height="1565" data-original-width="2008" height="156" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGQ7bT2ag_bmyAuFacvkeSjITraDtz2__B2lCiBLRfgw6HWh0GHJ27RzsUHuhZTdfjcbmcv4iCL60PU51CVrDsu54HMGfx-f_rmNbMrHA4sCen_H2gYdK2WRA8oiiJXhrcU42W03WLvJFp-d7olqFG5o8xegxVcBgRB0PCya_ppixsZqfa7zik789i/w200-h156/IMG_20220726_184445.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></div><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></a><p></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[From lines to tubes.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> (a) A Feynman diagram with proper-time parameters τ1, τ2, and τ3 (top) can be turned into a corresponding Riemann surface (bottom) by slightly thickening all the lines in the diagram into tubes that join together smoothly. The Riemann surface is parameterized, up to coordinate and Weyl transformation, by complex variables τ̂1, τ̂2, and τ̂3. (b) The same procedure can turn the one-loop Feynman diagram (top) into its string theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">analog</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> .]</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">We</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> used here 1D quantum gravity to describe quantum field theory in a possibly curved spacetime but not to describe quantum gravity in spacetime</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. The reason that we did not get quantum gravity in spacetime is that there is no correspondence between operators and states in quantum mechanics. We considered the 1D quantum mechanics with action</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">I=∫dt√g(1/2g*ttG**IJ dX*I/dt dX*J/dt−1/2m*2).....(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no 15)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">What turned out to be the external states in a Feynman diagram were just the states in that quantum mechanics. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But a deformation of the spacetime metric is represented not by a state but by an operator.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> When we make a change δG**IJ in the spacetime metric G**IJ, the action changes by I→I+∫dt√g𝒪, …..( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no 16)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> where 𝒪 = ½g*ttδG**IJ ∂tX*I∂**tX*J ……(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no 17)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> is</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> the operator that encodes a change in the spacetime metric.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Technically, to compute the effect of the perturbation, we include in the path integral a factor δI=∫dt√g𝒪, integrating over the position at which the operator 𝒪 is inserted.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">A state would appear at the end of an external line in the Feynman graph. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But an operator 𝒪 such as the one describing a perturbation in the spacetime metric appears at an interior point in the graph,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> as shown in figure 3a. Since states enter at ends of external lines and operators are inserted at internal points, there is in general no simple relation between operators and states.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">figure 3</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><img border="0" data-original-height="1529" data-original-width="2064" height="148" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy1gopnjwO48f25FR1smKh9wud4ZtcasWzleUcWHKXwR8ogyiZwAeAXrKcG_sHyOY7SAmgh_yyZwY2h6f-I6p4QFFi5m1-75ovr9ojsvpqT49WCJzV3PdDTDDCh1-BVUwixYf2NaVYgKGTRiU93xRNn4qkovmHMzxX2ePlXp0GkiqZhLPCbzRJGae7/w200-h148/IMG_20220726_184214.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></div><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></a><p></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[Figure 3. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">States and operators</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. (a) A deformation of the spacetime metric corresponds to an operator 𝒪 that can be inserted at some internal point p on a Feynman graph. By contrast, a state in the quantum mechanics would be attached to the end of one of the outgoing lines of the graph. (b) A Riemann surface can also have an operator insertion. (c) If the marked point in panel b is deleted, the Riemann surface is conformally equivalent to one with an outgoing tube that is analogous to an external line of a Feynman graph. The operator 𝒪 that was inserted at p is converted to a quantum state of the string that propagates on the tube.]</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But in conformal field theory, there is a correspondence between states and operators</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The operator 𝒪 = ½g*abδG**IJ∂**aX*I∂**bX**J ..…..(equation no 18 )that represents a fluctuation in the spacetime metric automatically represents a state in the quantum mechanics.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">That is why the theory describes quantum gravity in spacetime</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The operator–state correspondence arises from a 19th-century relation between two pictures that are conformally equivalent. Figure 3b shows a two-manifold Σ with a marked point p at which an operator 𝒪 is inserted. In figure 3c, the point p has been removed from Σ, and a Weyl transformation of the metric of Σ has converted what used to be a small neighborhood of the point p to a semi-infinite tube. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The tube is analogous to an external line of a Feynman graph, and what would be inserted at the end of it is a quantum string state.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The relation between the two pictures is the correspondence between operators and states.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">To understand the Weyl transformation between the two pictures, consider the metric of the plane (figure 4) in polar coordinates:</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ds*2=dr*2+r*2dθ*2.( </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no 19)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">We think of inserting an operator at the point r = 0.</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">figure</a></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><img border="0" data-original-height="1464" data-original-width="2152" height="136" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzzqJKJYkFMiA0U3Ds3r1WLB38NqaCr3DEpt7Jbw7chFAS8xZuNGPNPnChOQM3ZfrCeOXUXfzE5f5RljYfZMX3vVt_IXoMZUl9L8oZpsh0oCSQaWADVyHwsQD_Vys1_4JObctlDQvR9mNx63n49nBXmzYlFptbkMDqrTyVXN3-Dt-41G1FYtYCnw7X/w200-h136/IMG_20220726_184257.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></span></div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a></span><p></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[Figure</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> 4. A plane ℝ2, when a labeled point p is omitted, is equivalent via a Weyl transformation to a cylinder with a flat metric. Vertical position on the cylinder is given by w and the point p is mapped to the bottom end of the cylinder at w = −∞.]</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"> Now remove the point and make a Weyl transformation by multiplying ds2 with 1/r2 to get a new metric</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">(ds′)*2=1/r*2 dr*2+dϕ*2…….</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no 20)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In terms of w = log r, −∞ < w < ∞, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the new metric is (ds′)*2=dw*2+dϕ*2,...(equation no 21) which describes a cylinder</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. The point r = 0 in one description corresponds in the other description to the w → −∞ end of the cylinder. What is interpreted in one description as an operator inserted at r = 0 is interpreted in the other description as a quantum state flowing in from w = −∞.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Thus to us , string theory can describe quantum gravity in spacetime</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">But it does not describe quantum gravity only.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">It describes quantum gravity unified with various particles and all forces in spacetime</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The other particles and forces correspond to other operators in the conformal field theory of the string—apart from the operator 𝒪 that is related to a fluctuation in the spacetime geometry—or equivalently to other quantum states of the string.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">The operator–state correspondence that leads to string theory describing quantum gravity in spacetime is also important in some areas of statistical mechanics and condensed-matter physics. That is indeed another one of nature’s rhymes.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">No ultraviolet divergences</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The next step for us is to explain why this type of theory does not have ultraviolet divergences?</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, in sharp contrast to what happens if we simply apply textbook recipes of quantization to the Einstein–Hilbert action for gravity. When we use those recipes, we encounter intractable ultraviolet divergences that were first found in the 1930s. Back then it was not entirely clear that the problem is special to gravity, because there were also troublesome ultraviolet divergences when other particle forces were studied in the framework of relativistic quantum theory. However, as ultraviolet divergences were overcome for the other forces—most completely with the emergence of the standard model of particle physics in the 1970s—it </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">became clear that the problems for gravity are serious.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">To understand why there are no ultraviolet divergences in string theory, we should begin by asking how ultraviolet divergences arise in ordinary quantum field theory.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">They arise when all the proper-time variables in a loop go simultaneously to zero. So in the example of figure 1, there can be an ultraviolet divergence when τ1, τ2, τ3, and τ4 simultaneously vanish.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">It is true that a Riemann surface can be characterized by complex parameters that roughly parallel the proper-time parameters of a Feynman graph (figure 2). But one important difference prevents ultraviolet divergences in string theory. The proper-time variables τi of a Feynman graph cover the whole range 0 ≤ τi ≤ ∞. By contrast, the corresponding Riemann surface parameters τ̂i are bounded away from zero. Given a Feynman diagram, one can make a corresponding Riemann surface, but only if the magnitudes of the proper-time variables τ̂i are not too small. The region of the parameter space where ultraviolet divergences occur in field theory simply has no counterpart in string theory.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Instead of giving a general explanation, we will show how it works in the case of the one-loop cosmological constant. The Feynman diagram is a simple circle (figure 5a), with a single proper-time parameter τ. The resulting expression for the one-loop cosmological constant is</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">figure</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">[</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Figure 5.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> One-loop cosmological constant. (a) In quantum field theory, this Feynman diagram with a single proper-time parameter τ, underlies the one-loop cosmological constant. (b) The string theory counterpart is a torus characterized by a parameter u (the imaginary part of the complex parameter τ̂ from figure 2a) that, crucially, is bounded away from zero.]</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Λ1=1\2∫*∞**0 dτ/τ Tr exp(−τH),(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no 22)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> where H is the particle Hamiltonian ½(P*2 + m*2). The integral diverges at τ = 0, and the divergence is actually more severe than it looks because of the momentum integration that is part of the trace.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Going to string theory means replacing the classical one-loop diagram with its stringy counterpart, which is a torus</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> (figure 5b). Nineteenth-century mathematicians showed that every torus is conformally equivalent to a parallelogram in the plane with opposite sides identified:</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Figure</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">But to explain the idea without any extraneous technicalities, we will consider, instead of parallelograms, only rectangles:</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Figure</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">We label the height and base of the rectangle as s and s′, respectively.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Only the ratio u = s’/s is conformally invariant. Also, since what we call the “height” as opposed to the “base” of a rectangle is arbitrary, we are free to exchange s and s′, which corresponds to u ↔ 1/u. So we can restrict ourselves to s′ ≥ s, and thus the range of u is 1 ≤ u < ∞.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The proper-time parameter τ of the particle corresponds to u in string theory, with the key difference being that for the particle, 0 ≤ τ < ∞, but for the string, 1 ≤ u < ∞. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So in the approximation of considering only rectangles and not parallelograms, the one-loop cosmological constant in string</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">theory is</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Λ1=1/2∫*∞**1t d**u/u0Trexp(−uH)....(</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">equation no 23)</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">There is no ultraviolet divergence, because the lower limit on the integral is 1 instead of 0.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> A more complete analysis with parallelograms shifts the lower bound on u from 1 to √3/2.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">We have described a special case, but the conclusion is general. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The stringy formulas generalize the field theory formulas, but without the region that can give ultraviolet divergences in field theory.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The infrared region (τ → ∞ or u → ∞) lines up properly between field theory and string theory, and that is why a string theory can imitate field theory in its predictions for behavior at low energies or long times and distances.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Emergent spacetime</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Our next attempt here will be to explain, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">in what sense spacetime emerges from something deeper if string theory is correct</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Let us focus on the following fact. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The spacetime M with its metric tensor GIJ(X) was encoded as the data that enabled us to define one particular 2D conformal field theory.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">That is the only way that spacetime entered the story</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In our equations, we could have used a different 2D conformal field theory. Now if GIJ(X) is slowly varying (the radius of curvature is everywhere large), the Lagrangian by which we described the 2D conformal field theory is weakly coupled and useful. In that case, string theory matches the ordinary physics that we are familiar with. In this situation, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">we can say that the theory has a semiclassical interpretation in terms of strings in spacetime—and it will reduce at low energies to an interpretation in terms of particles and fields in spacetime.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">When we get away from a semiclassical, weak-coupling limit, the Lagrangian is not so useful and the theory does not have any particular interpretation in terms of strings in spacetime. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The breakdown of a simple spacetime interpretation has many nonclassical consequences, such as the ability to make continuous transitions from one spacetime to another, or the fact that certain types of singularities (</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">but not black hole singularities) </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">in</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">classical general relativity turn out to represent perfectly smooth and harmless situations in string theory</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. An example of the nonclassical behavior of string theory is sketched in figure 6.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">figure</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">[Figure 6. Schematic representation of a family of two-dimensional conformal field theories (the gray region bounded by black lines) that depend on two parameters. For some values of the parameters, the theories have semiclassical interpretations in terms of strings propagating in a spacetime M1, M2, or M3. Generically there is no such interpretation yet present in string theory. However, one can make a continuous transition from one possible classical spacetime to another, as indicated by the colored lines.]</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In general, string theory comes with no particular spacetime interpretation,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> but such an interpretation can emerge in a suitable limit, somewhat as classical mechanics sometimes arises as a limit of quantum mechanics. From this point of view, spacetime emerges from a seemingly more fundamental concept of 2D conformal field theory.</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Wechave not given a complete explanation of the sense in which, in the context of string theory, how spacetime emerges from something deeper. A completely different side of the story, beyond the scope of the present article, involves quantum mechanics and the duality between gauge theory and gravity. (See the article by Igor Klebanov and Juan Maldacena, Physics Today, January 2009, page 28.) However, what we have described in this article is certainly one important and relatively well-understood piece of the puzzle. It is at least a partial insight about how spacetime as conceived by Einstein can emerge from something deeper, and thus hopefully is of interest in the present centennial year of general relativity.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">figure</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">References </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a></span></p><p dir="ltr" id="docs-internal-guid-5041d42c-7fff-ee59-3a9f-59d0c7ec3ab7" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">References </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">1)Rupak Bhattacharya, Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya, Upasana Bhattacharya, Ritwik Bhattacharya, Rupsa Bhattacharya, Dalia Mukherjee, Ayushi mukherjee, Debasish mukherjee, soumayak Bhattacharya, Hindole Banerjee . 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Zwiebach, A First Course in String Theory, 2nd ed., Cambridge U. Press (2009). </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">2 </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">J. Polchinski, String Theory, Volume 1: An Introduction to the Bosonic String, Cambridge U. Press (2005). </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">3 </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">M. B. Green, J. S. Schwarz, E. Witten, Superstring Theory, Volume 1: Introduction, Cambridge U. Press (1987).</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">4=Highlighting the usefulness of string theory</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">5 String Theory and M-Theory: A Modern Introduction</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">6 String Theory and Particle Physics: An Introduction to String Phenomenology</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3461" target="_blank">Is string theory phenomenologically viable?</a></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjE86iNs_NWhUlCf3qZEV5QLfKhyLH3Xw30KWKwEM2ZXtmAyCerqU3PihyQEZ-zVp9pmynROjMjUOxcMZ9jD9_L8TLqTD6GD6ufMcgOQEwVEsio56HQ7XnWk9tyqm91tCDvSZpHIn0DA4UtMmnhTgrBecdXOd6S_gDQuHE--TtO8bCQcML_XeUlAhdo/s720/IMG_20221123_012326.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="489" data-original-width="720" height="217" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjE86iNs_NWhUlCf3qZEV5QLfKhyLH3Xw30KWKwEM2ZXtmAyCerqU3PihyQEZ-zVp9pmynROjMjUOxcMZ9jD9_L8TLqTD6GD6ufMcgOQEwVEsio56HQ7XnWk9tyqm91tCDvSZpHIn0DA4UtMmnhTgrBecdXOd6S_gDQuHE--TtO8bCQcML_XeUlAhdo/s320/IMG_20221123_012326.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></p><br />Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-9323871134852251062022-01-29T19:49:00.001-08:002022-01-29T19:49:52.367-08:00Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; : What if the "Big Bang" was not the beginning point...<a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2022/01/what-if-big-bang-was-not-beginning.html?spref=bl">Blogs of Professor(Dr.) Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(calcutta.Univ) Pathology; : What if the "Big Bang" was not the beginning point...</a>: What if the "Big Bang" was not the beginning point of our observable universe? Authors By * Rupak Bhattacharya ,BSc (Calcutta...Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-81451035665815441552022-01-29T06:57:00.004-08:002022-05-24T10:28:22.968-07:00What if the "Big Bang" was not the beginning point of our observable universe?<p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"> <span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: 700; white-space: pre-wrap;">What if the "Big Bang" was not the beginning point of our observable universe?</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Authors</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">By </a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">*</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Rupak Bhattacharya</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ,BSc (Calcutta University), MSc (Jadavpur University) ,of residence 7/51 Purbapalli, Post office -Sodepur, District 24 parganas ( north) Kolkata -110, West Bengal, India Theoretical physicist ।( No institutional affiliation )</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">** </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Professor</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> MD (University of Calcutta) ,FICPath, WBMES (Retired), a Retired Professor and Head of Pathology from West Bengal Medical Education Services cadre of Department of Health and Family Welfare of Govt of West Bengal , India **</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Upasana Bhattacharya,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> a 4th semister student of B.DES ( Fashion Design course )UPES university, Derhadoon, uttarakhand, India , ***</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ritwik Bhattacharya,</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> B Com ( Calcutta University) ****</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Aiyshi Mukherjee</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> , a BSC Biotechnology students of Kalyani University, West Bengal ***</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Rupsha Bhattacharya</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> BA honors student of West Bengal State University Barasat , ****</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Debasish Mukherjee</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> BSc (Calcutta University) ****</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Dalia Mukherjee BA</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> honors (Calcutta university) ***</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Hindol Banerjee</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> BA (honors) West Bengal State University Barasat north 24 parganas West Bengal India</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">*** Of residence 7/51 Purbapalli , Post office --Sodepur, district 24 parganas</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">( north) Kolkata -110 ,West Bengal, India</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">(No institutional affiliation)</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">**** Of residence Swamiji Nagar, South Habra, District 24 Parganas ( north ),West Bengal ,India(No institutional affiliation)</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Corresponding author</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> -: Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya MD university of Calcutta FICPath WBMES Retiered</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Email</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">profpkb@yahoo.co.in</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">mobile phone number</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> +91 9231510435</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><span style="color: red; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Copyright of this Manuscript belong primarily to Prof. Dr. Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya and to authors as per serial orders under strict Copyright acts and laws of Intellectual Property Rights of World Intellectual Property Rights organisations ( WIPO) , RDF copyright rights acts and laws and PIP copy right acts of USA 2012 where Prof Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya is registered member</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.</span></a></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="AdvStone-SB" style="color: #9900ff; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Strict Terms and conditions for publishing the manuscript in any open access journals by the author when accepted by peer reviewers ( when and if sent for publication in any open access journals)</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="AdvStone-SB" style="color: #231f20; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"> 1)</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="AdvStone-SB" style="color: #231f20; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; 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No change of authors chronological orders qualifications and affiliation as mentioned in the manuscript will be ever entertained at all on any requests</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="AdvStone-SB" style="color: #231f20; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">6) only if you agree on these terms and conditions , only then proceed for peer reviews if you consider it suitable for and if accepted for publication proceed & if you don't agree then please let the authors know that you are not agreed and immediately erase the sent article manuscript from your all kinds of possession for future, so that author can send the article to next journal he likes to send</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="AdvStone-SB" style="color: #231f20; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Declaration by corresponding authors</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="AdvStone-SB" style="color: #231f20; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">The undersigned as authors declare that he is sending the article to journal…..</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="AdvStone-SB" style="color: #231f20; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">For publication and the article has not been sent and considered for publishing in any other journals so far</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="AdvStone-SB" style="color: #231f20; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Signature of authors and consent form will be sent once the article manuscript is accepted after peer review and journals editorial board gives consent to publish without any kinds of charges as APC as told above terms and conditions</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="AdvStone-SB" style="color: #231f20; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="AdvStone-SB" style="color: #231f20; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span face="AdvStone-SB" style="color: #231f20; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Introduction-: </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">The greatest discovery in the history of science is that there was a day without a yesterday. The Universe had not existed forever. It was born? Or It was created by some creator ? Or it was just be ? All matter today what we see , all energy in the observable universe, space , all voids and even time, bursted out into being in a titanic fireball we call the moment of the Big Bang the "planck's epoch" ,and that is estimated did happen approximately 13.82 billion years ago. The fireball then expanded in all directions and, out of the cooling debris , dark matters ( both cold and hot or mixed dark matter) , there congealed all nebulas ,all galaxies – great islands of stars and mixed dark matters ; two or three trillions of them, of which our spiral Galaxy "Milky Way " is but not only one spiral galaxies, there are so many spiral galaxies we know it today.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Whatever way you look at it, the idea of the Universe popping into existence like a rabbit out of a hat is bonkers. For this reason, scientists had to be dragged kicking and screaming to it. The last thing they wanted to answer was the very awkward scientific questions : what did happen then before the Big Bang? Was there really a Big Bang? Was there only one BigBang or were there multiple Big Bangs? Was there only a single observed universe or there are multiverse buble universes??</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">In recent decades, the idea has taken hold that the Universe began with an ultra-brief burst of a massive Blackhole ( a singlarity) with super-fast expansion and the expansion is now forever . So violent was this ‘inflation’ that it’s been likened to the explosion of several few thousands Hydrogen-bombs compared with the mere stick of dynamite of the more sedate Big Bang expansion that took over when inflation ran out of steam.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">So next questions comes automatically to authors like us 1) where did the Big Bang actually took place in time'lines ? 2) Why didn’t the Big Bang produced equal amounts of matter and antimatter? 3) where then did antimatter disappear ?4) is there another universe made of antimatter or mirror matter? 5) were there multiple buble universes one of which is our universe? 6) Does white whole exist as gate way to another universe ?</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Big Bang or Big Bounce or other?</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Did the universe start with a BigBang orgin or was it a Big Bounce—or something else entirely? The question of our origins is one of the thorniest in highest quality physics, with few true answers and lots of speculations and strong feelings. The most popular theory by far is the Big Bang Singularity with inflationary theory of Alan Guth (This Big Bang theory brought so many Nobel p rizes in physics since 1901 that very few scientists are found now against the theory) , the notion that the cosmos blew up in size in the first few fractions of a second after it was born in a Big Bang epoch. But an underdog idea persist that the birth of this universe was not actually the beginning—that an earlier version of spacetime had existed and contracted toward a “Big Crunch" then flipped and started expanding into what we see today. Now a new study suggesting a twist on this “bounce” scenario has supporters excited and inflation proponents newly inflamed over a “rival” they say they have repeatedly disproved, only to have it keep bouncing back.Inflation has many admirers because the rapid expansion it posits seems to explain numerous features of the universe, such as the fact that it appears relatively flat (as opposed to curved, on large scales) and roughly uniform in all directions (there is roughly the same amount of stuff everywhere, again on large scales). Both conditions result when regions of space that ended up very far away initially started out close together and in contact with one another. Yet the latest versions of the theory seem to suggest—even require—that inflation created not just our universe but an infinite</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">landscape of universe in which possible type of universe with every possible set of physical laws and characteristics formed somewhere. Some scientists like this implication because it could explain why our particular universe, with its seemingly random yet perfectly calibrated-to-life conditions, exists—if every type of cosmos is out there, it is no wonder that ours is, too. But other physicists find the multiverse idea repulsive, in part because if the theory predicts that every possibility will come to pass, it does not uniquely foretell a universe like the one we have.</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Was it a Big Bang or Big Bounce ?</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">"The Big Bounce" concept started in 2017 -2018 remain still a hypothesized cosmological model for the origin of the observed universe and is under active investigation now. It was originally suggested as a phase of the cyclic model or a kind of oscillatory universe interpretation of the Big Bang, where the first cosmological event was the result of the collapse of a previous universe existed in forward time scale . Actually such a conceptual persisted beforehand, but the very concept receded from serious consideration in the early 1980s after the inflation theory emerged as a solution to the horizon problems of the universe, which had arisen from advances in observations revealing the large-scale structure of the universe. In the early 2000s, inflation was found by some theorists to be much problematic and unfalsifiable in that its various parameters could be adjusted to fit any observations, so that the properties of the observable universe are a matter of chance in Big Bang model . Alternative pictures including a Big Bounce may provide a predictive and falsifiable possible solution to the horizon problems </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">The concept of the Big Bounce envisions the Big Bang as the beginning of a period of expansion that followed by a period of contraction. In this view, one could talk of a Big Crunch ( another singlarity) followed by a Big Bang, or more simply, a Big Bounce. This suggests that we could be living at any point in an infinite sequence of universes, or conversely the current universe could be the very first iteraction. However, if the condition of the interval phase "between bounces", considered the 'hypothesis of the primeval atom', is taken into full contingency such enumeration may be meaningless because that condition could represent a singularity in time at each instance, if such perpetual return was absolute and undifferentiated.The main idea behind the quantum theory of a Big Bounce is that, as density approaches infinity, the behavior of the quantum foam changes. All the so-called fundamental physical constants, including the speed of light in a vacuum, need not remain constant during a Big Crunch, especially in the time interval smaller than that in which measurement may never be possible (one unit of Planck time, roughly 10*−43 seconds) spanning or bracketing the point of spanning or bracketing the point of inflection.</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">But now, we authors are so questioning the inflationary orthodoxy and advocating a fresh look at alternative models in which the Big Bang was actually a ‘Big Bounce’ from an earlier, contracting, phase of the Universe or not . “Crucially, my co authors and I are proposing an observational test capable of distinguishing between the possibilities,”</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">The Big Bounce describes the idea that the Universe's rapid expansion was a reaction to a period of rapid contraction </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">The Big Bounce describes the idea that the Universe’s rapid expansion was a reaction to a period of rapid contraction </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Inexplicably big gaps</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">One cosmic observation that any scenario must explain is why the Universe is so remarkably uniform: specifically, why the temperature of the heat afterglow of the Big Bang is pretty much the same everywhere and why the number of galaxies in a given volume is also the same everywhere.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">This is yet a big puzzle to us because if the expansion of the Universe is imagined running backwards to the Big Bang, like a movie playing in reverse, it becomes clear that regions of the Universe that today are widely separated were not in contact with each other at the beginning. In other words, there has been insufficient time since the birth of the Universe for any influence travelling at the cosmic speed limit (the speed of light) to pass between them. How, then, could heat have passed between such regions in order for their temperatures to equalise?</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">The standard explanation may be that the Universe was far smaller early on than we imagine if we run that movie in reverse. If it was smaller, then bits of the Universe that are today widely separated would have been closer together. But, if the Universe started off smaller earlier on, it must have expanded faster in order to reach its current size in 13.82 billion years.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Such a period of super-fast expansion, occurring in the first split-second of the Universe’s existence, was also proposed by the Russian physicist Alexei Starobinsky in 1979 and the American physicist Prof Alan Guth in 1980. This inflation was driven by the vacuum. Not the vacuum that we see around us today but a super-high-energy version. This was because the ‘inflationary vacuum’ contained a so-called scalar field, which, in common with the Higgs field, discovered at the Large Hadron Collider near Geneva in 2012, had a non-zero energy everywhere. Was it Dark energy?</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Dark energy is hiding in our Universe: </a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">here’s how we’ll find it Radical ideas was : The number that holds the Universe together is changing. The super-high-energy inflationary vacuum had however some remarkable properties. First, it had repulsive gravity, which caused the universe to expand – and the more of it there was, the greater was its repulsion and the faster it expanded. Second, when the inflationary vacuum doubled its volume, it doubled its energy; when it tripled its volume, it tripled its energy and so on.The phenomenon can be explained in following ways. Imagine if you had a stack of banknotes between your hands and you pulled your hands apart and the result was the creation of more banknotes. Physicists, not surprisingly, refer to inflation as the ‘ultimate free lunch’.But the inflationary vacuum, which contained only energy but not matter, was a ‘quantum’ thing (quantum theory is our best description of the microscopic world of atoms and their constituents). And quantum things are fundamentally unpredictable. So, at random locations all over the inflationary vacuum, bits ‘decayed’ into normal, everyday vacuum.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Picture it as a vast ocean in which bubbles form constantly. Inside each bubble, the enormous energy of the inflationary vacuum had to go somewhere. It went into creating matter and heating it to a ferociously high temperature – in short, into creating a big bang. We live inside one of these big bang bubbles in the inflationary vacuum.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Inflation decays at different rates in different locations, leading to ‘bubbles’ in the inflationary vacuum, in other words, creating the potential for a multiverse, the Big Bang is then not a one-off event. Big bangs are going off like fireworks across the inflationary vacuum. And all this could have been started by a small piece of inflationary vacuum – with a mass-energy of as little as a kilogram – popping into existence out of nothing, which, incredibly, is permitted by the laws of quantum theory. Inflation, once started, goes on forever since new vacuum is created faster than it’s eaten away.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">But, according to us authors, the inflationary scenario has still many problems. though awarded many Nobel prizes in physics “ Even After 42 years of proposed theory of inflation by Prof Alan Guth , we have yet no evidence of the existence of the ‘inflaton’ field decay that drived inflation, as we do find of the Higgs felid in Higgs particles decay,” Also, there is an infinity of ways in which the inflaton field can decay, exiting inflationary expansion and starting Big Bang expansion. Physicists imagine a mathematical ‘potential’, rather like a ski slope, down which the inflaton field slides, reducing its energy to zero. But the ski slope can have a different shape in different locations. “This means to us that inflation will continue for longer in some places than others, greatly changing nature of the resultant space-time,. “Inflation therefore predicts the existence of an infinity of domains, each with different physics – a ‘multiverse’.”</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Inflation decays at different rates in different locations, leading to 'bubbles' in the inflationary vacuum, in other words, creating the high potential for a multiverse</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Now the problem stands within us that our Universe doesn’t have the properties of a typical member of the multiverse. “Our universe is exceedingly dilute in vacuum energy relative to a typical region in the multiverse,” We are therefore forced to explain its special properties, such as dark energy, with the topsy-turvy logic of the ‘anthropic principle’: that we live in the domain we live in because, if we didn’t, the physics would not have given rise to stars and galaxies, and physicists to describe them. “This gives inflation no explanatory power,” “It’s an infinitely flexible framework capable of fitting any data. To my mind that means it is not science.”</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"> According to ‘the father of inflation’ Prof Alan Guth of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology: “The comment that inflationary cosmology, as we currently understand it, cannot be evaluated using the scientific method seemed so far removed from reality that 32 leaders in the field of cosmology, including five Nobel Laureates, and I wrote a letter to the editor categorically disagreeing with the statements made by this article about the testability of inflation.”we think that inflation, like ‘string theory’ (a candidate for a theory of everything) has evolved over a long time in the absence of serious experimental tests of its fundamental ideas. “It has therefore created a culture in which supporters believe the theory need not pass the same stringent tests as other theories to prove its rightness,” .</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">From Bang to Bounce?</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">One alternative to us is that the Universe didn’t begin with a burst of vacuum-driven inflation but instead underwent a previous contraction phase. The Big Bang would therefore not have been a Big Bang but rather a Big Bounce. There are a number of possibilities, one of which is the ‘cyclic Universe’ in which the Universe might undergoes repeated bounces, possibly an infinite number of them, and therefore has actually no beginning at all.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Crucially, though, a long pre-Big Bang phase provides plenty of time for properties of the Universe to equalise, just as a long time allows a bath of cold water to come to an even temperature after hot water is added.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Did a tiny star had the power one of the biggest bangs in the Universe is a big question to solve for Big Bounce?</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Scientists created strange matter that once filled Universe. The Standard Model of particle physics describes the fundamental ‘fields’ that make up our Universe. An electron is a ripple in the ‘electron field’, a photon a ripple in the ‘electromagnetic field’ and so on. The Standard Model, however, is only an approximation of an as-yet-unknown deeper theory.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"> we authors say it will contain new fields with new massive subatomic particles. These will oscillate in the early Universe, imprinting a telltale regularity on the temperature variations of the cosmic background radiation. “This ‘periodicity’ is potentially observable,” “And the crucial thing is that it’s different for a Universe that underwent an inflationary expansion and one that underwent a contraction.”</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">The largest temperature variations were set in place first in an expanding scenario but lasted in a contracting scenario. And since the size, or amplitude, of the temperature variations grows with time, it is possible to tell which scenario was first.</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">The new test is not the only possible test of inflation. An experiment at the South Pole called BICEP2 is looking for the imprint on the cosmic background radiation of ripples in space-time (gravitational waves), created in the violent turmoil of the early Universe. “If the imprint is found, it will prove" Big Bang inflation,” . “But if the imprint is not found, it will be possible to find an inflationary model where the imprint is undetectable. This is what we want to mean about the theory being infinitely flexible and scientifically unfalsifiable.”</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">We of course do admit that the detailed physics of a cosmic bounce is as unknown as the detailed physics of inflation. But this is inevitable because of the state of our knowledge of fundamental science. The two towering achievements of 20th-Century physics are quantum theory (which describes the world of the very small) and Einstein’s theory of gravity (which describes the very large domain of the Universe).</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">In the Big Bang, a very big Universe was very small and therefore it is necessary to unify quantum theory and Einstein’s theory of gravity in order to predict what went on. Such a unification has so far proved elusive. “The stark truth is that, without a quantum theory of gravity, we can never really be sure how our Universe began..</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Xxxxx</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">What others say about Big Bounce theory?</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Now the breakthrough may come on origin of universe. Thanks to both theories. 1) Inflation theory through quantum chromodynamics and scalar field and 2) Big Bounce. One was to use the most nascent and still-not-complete theory of quantum( QCD) cosmology—a mash-up between quantum mechanics and general relativity—instead of classical general relativity to describe our observable universe. The second theory was to assume that when the cosmos was very young , matter there behaved like light in that the laws of physics that describe it did not depend on any scale. For example, light acted the same regardless of its wavelength. The physics of matter, on the other hand, usually vary from small to large scales. “We know that in the first 50,000 years the universe was essentially just filled with radiation,. “The normal matter we see now was not really very significant then. I think a scaleless early universe is actually very much suggested by our current measurements.”Under those conditions Turok and Gielen found that the contracting universe would never actually become a singularity—essentially it would rather “tunnel through” the worrisome point by hopping from a state right before it to a state right after it. Although such sidestepping sounds like cheating, it is a proved phenomenon in quantum mechanics. Because particles do not exist in absolute states but rather hazes of probability there is a small but real chance they can “tunnel” through physical barriers to reach locations seemingly off-limits to them—the equivalent, on a microscopic scale, of walking through walls. “The fuzziness in space and time and the matter conspires to make it uncertain where the universe is at a given time,”</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Turok explains. “This allows the universe to pass through the singularity.”</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><br /></a><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Other big bounce proponents say the work is a significant step. “By making those two plausible assumptions, they find a very interesting result, which is that a bounce can occur,” says Princeton physicist Paul Steinhardt, one of the founders of inflation theory who has more recently become one of its sharpest critics of inflation theory of Big Bang. He is in opinion. “It shows that in principle a singularity can be avoided.” Steinhardt and Ijjas have been working on another way to mathematically demonstrate the possibility of a Big bounce, by introducing to the universe a special type of field that causes the contraction to turn into expansion well before space gets small enough to become a singularity. Their solution uses classical general relativity as opposed to quantum cosmology. “It means that classical, nonsingular bounces are also possible,” Steinhardt told . They reported their work in a paper posted June 28,2021 to the preprint server arXiv.org. Both studies are still preliminary. Turok and Gielen were able to calculate the bounce only for the case of an idealized universe that is completely smooth and lacks the small density fluctuations that lead to the formation of stars and galaxies in the real cosmos. “The cases that we can actually solve exactly are very simple universes,” Gielen says. “The question you always have is, ‘Will that still be there if you go to something more complicated?’ That’s what we’re working on at the moment.”the universe bounced once, a natural question is whether it will again. But not all bounce theories suggest we are destined to cycle forever through contractions and expansions—for example, even if our universe bounced before, we have no indication so far that it is heading for another contraction. The dark energy thought to make up the largest chunk of the cosmos’ total mass–energy budget seems to be pulling our universe apart at an ever-accelerating rate. What is truly in store for the future is a very open question—about as open, in fact, as the issue of how it all got started.Many advocates of inflation are highly skeptical of any bounce model, especially because they say proponents had repeatedly claimed in the past to be able to calculate bounces without singularities, only to be disproved. “I’m not happy that they do not admit that all their earlier papers should be disregarded,” says Stanford University physicist Renata Kallosh, who calculated errors in previously proposed bounce models. “They now make a new claim, and this new claim I don’t believe.” Alan Guth, a pioneer of inflation based at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, agrees. “Ihe says. “I would like to wait and see how it develops. If they have succeeded in what they claim they’ve done, I do agree it’s very important—even if it’s not the best model for the history of the universe.”</a></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Some inflation researchers are more forgiving, though. “I think that this is a very intriguing line of research,” says Marc Kamionkowski of Johns Hopkins University. “The bounce scenarios, although not yet developed to the level that inflation has been developed, are promising, and it’s imperative to try to develop them further. This paper provides an interesting mathematical result, in a toy model,” he adds, referring to the idealized universe the researchers worked with.Turok and other critics of inflation have their own problems with the dominant theory. They charge that inflation requires unlikely circumstances to get started (a claim proponents disagree with) and that it does not resolve the specter of a singularity at the moment of the big bang itself. Furthermore, “inflation leads to this nightmare scenario of a multiverse,” Turok says, “which for some strange reason is surprisingly popular.”He suggests that the heated debate in the field and the heavy scrutiny new ideas receive will help scientists ultimately converge on a better theory of our origins. “People hold very strong opinions,” Turok says. “I freely admit I do and I freely admit my opinions aren’t shared by 95 percent of cosmologists. I’m actually critical of all these theories, including the ones I invented. But today we have spectacular observations pointing us at incredible simplicity in the universe. To me that means that all of our existing theories are way too complicated. The observations are pointing at simplicity and it’s our job to come up with a simple theory that will hopefully explain those.”</a></span></p><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Warning for readers<br />Please note it very care fully that the manuscript<br /></a><div style="background-color: #ffffe5; text-align: left;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style", serif; font-size: 9pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red;"> </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: 700; white-space: pre-wrap;">What if the "Big Bang" was not the beginning point of our observable universe is the original concept of authors and </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style", serif; font-size: 9pt; 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color: #333333; font-family: verdana, arial; font-size: 10.6667px;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; font-family: "bookman old style", serif; font-size: 9pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335" target="_blank">Equivalent officiating Ranks was special secretary to government of West Bengal India</a></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGjAcVNuyayHyUqIVu0ccujfrwS0Up1F4cyTfhT_kqphuG3KBJwnUV_1Y4LOr3aE3Bu9AaYbIgE5g3YUC9j83rr4BcyYxx5hb_tL6to2LELbKX17MUPcIRUcJngqh0S8-iiedYNmjZlvKRhzDREFwTjfNzQGEIxa3jnRykrKVKNp7CqEPnM-7Csx6w/s719/IMG_20220524_131417.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="511" data-original-width="719" height="188" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGjAcVNuyayHyUqIVu0ccujfrwS0Up1F4cyTfhT_kqphuG3KBJwnUV_1Y4LOr3aE3Bu9AaYbIgE5g3YUC9j83rr4BcyYxx5hb_tL6to2LELbKX17MUPcIRUcJngqh0S8-iiedYNmjZlvKRhzDREFwTjfNzQGEIxa3jnRykrKVKNp7CqEPnM-7Csx6w/w265-h188/IMG_20220524_131417.jpg" width="265" /></a></div><br /><div style="background-color: #ffffe5; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, arial; font-size: 10.6667px;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: #ffffe5; color: #333333; font-family: verdana, arial; font-size: 10.6667px;"><br /></div>Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-7067104331042666472021-08-16T09:10:00.001-07:002021-08-26T07:01:17.649-07:00Life Time Achievements Awards of SCIENCE FATHER of ministry of corporate affairs Government of india<p> https://youtu.be/h2GXAfSBz48</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" class="BLOG_video_class" height="266" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/h2GXAfSBz48" width="320" youtube-src-id="h2GXAfSBz48"></iframe></div><br /><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRF68ntP3VDtpdC_kTmNQCOmqrXfWfFMn_JeHtDcYPnpxTuVPJq43zobPiky79D1xgazdyzWs8rfl2MqkQ1wefNeaxmL2QQMnfKP2hVxAvOnDJZ1T7d3PnQDNTI7UcpE5Hpqu-QugXx9k/s950/IMG_20210710_204453.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="950" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRF68ntP3VDtpdC_kTmNQCOmqrXfWfFMn_JeHtDcYPnpxTuVPJq43zobPiky79D1xgazdyzWs8rfl2MqkQ1wefNeaxmL2QQMnfKP2hVxAvOnDJZ1T7d3PnQDNTI7UcpE5Hpqu-QugXx9k/s320/IMG_20210710_204453.jpg" width="243" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSJsBoTucFVFVAWeeB-F9u3RwK81jm1r52GNJJnuzbj1yTQJIzHr6w_59ludttG3IVTDidl2QLSDL8eXqA9FZuUj48K6cc8GrbKODEBKJ4Q1WyNs8iuqLWbanAMmHJ3dmBRwlw3Yc08zE/s4032/IMG_20210810_132138.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="4032" data-original-width="3024" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSJsBoTucFVFVAWeeB-F9u3RwK81jm1r52GNJJnuzbj1yTQJIzHr6w_59ludttG3IVTDidl2QLSDL8eXqA9FZuUj48K6cc8GrbKODEBKJ4Q1WyNs8iuqLWbanAMmHJ3dmBRwlw3Yc08zE/s320/IMG_20210810_132138.jpg" width="240" /></a></div><br />Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-64827401361061834332021-06-20T08:05:00.007-07:002021-08-26T07:01:39.664-07:00Indian icons education awards award 2021 life time achievements awards<div style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://youtu.be/CvfhBDQ1Gk0">https://youtu.be/CvfhBDQ1Gk0</a> https://youtu.be/CvfhBDQ1Gk0</div><p><br /></p><p><a href="https://youtu.be/CvfhBDQ1Gk0">https://youtu.be/CvfhBDQ1Gk0</a><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p>Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-9905113162999120842021-06-20T07:56:00.000-07:002021-08-26T07:02:19.098-07:00<p> https://images.app.goo.gl/kYQKTpKZhiNb7W5b7</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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<a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/issue/view/315"><strong><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">Research & Reviews: Journal of Space Science & Technology</span></strong><b><span style="font-family: "cambria" , serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></a></div>
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<a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/issue/view/315">ISSN: 2321-2837 (Online), ISSN: 2321-6506 (Print</a><a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/issue/view/259">)</a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/goog_1248582541">Volume 8, Issue 3<o:p></o:p></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/issue/view/315">www.stmjournals.com</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 18.0pt;"><a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339">Hello!Are We Alone? If You're Like Me, You May Want to Know Me!</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339">Rupak Bhattacharya<sup>1</sup>,Pranab
Kumar Bhattacharya<sup>2</sup>, Upasana Bhattacharya<sup>3</sup>, <span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:19"><br /></del></span></a></span></i></b></div>
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<a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339">Ritwick Bhattacharya<sup>4</sup>, Rupsa Bhattacharya<sup>5</sup>, Ayishee
Mukherjee<sup>5</sup>, Dalia Mukherjee<sup>6</sup>, OaindrilaMukherjee<sup>6a</sup>,
Hindole Banerjee<sup>5a</sup>, Debasis Mukherjee<sup>6b</sup>,</a> <a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339">Soumayak Bhattacharya</a><sup><a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339">7</a></sup><br />
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<sup><br /></sup>
<sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339">1</a></span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339">B.Sc.
(Calcutta University), M.Sc. (Jadavpur University<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T12:44">.</del></span>) of Residence
-7/51 Purbapalli, Po-Sodepur, Dist-24 Parganas (north), Kolkata-110, West
Bengal, India, Theoretical Physicist<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T12:46">. </del></span><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T12:46">, </ins></span>No Institutional
attachment at present<o:p></o:p></a></span></div>
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<a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">2</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">MBBS
(Calcutta University<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T12:46">.</del></span>), M.D. (Calcutta University), FIC
Path (India), Professor of Pathology, Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine,
Kolkata-700073, West Bengal, India; also Professor of Pathology,
Murshidabad<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Medical College, Berhampore
station Road ,Murshidabad, West Bengal, India, Ex Member of Board of
Studies(UG/PG) of West Bengal University of Health Sciences, DD 36 Salt Lake,
Sector-1, Kolkata-64, India<o:p></o:p></span></a></div>
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<a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Student of <span style="color: red;">B Des</span> (F<span style="color: red;">ashion design</span>) - daughter of Professor PranabKumar Bhattacharya<o:p></o:p></span></a></div>
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<a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">4</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">B.Com
(Calcutta University<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T12:47">.</del></span>), of Residence 7/51<span style="color: red;">,</span> Purbapalli, PO-Sodepur, District 24 Pargana (north),
Kolkata-110, West Bengal, India<o:p></o:p></span></a></div>
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<a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">5</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">student
and<sup>5a</sup>BA honours (West Bengal State University,Barasat ) of residence
7/51 Purbapalli, Po-Sodepur, Dist 24 Parganas (north), Kolkata-110, West
Bengal, India<o:p></o:p></span></a></div>
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<a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339"><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">6</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">BA(honours) Calcutta university, of residence Swamiji Road, South Habra,
24 Parganas(north) West Bengal, India; <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><sup><span style="color: red;">6a</span></sup> BSC hotel management, Indira Gandhi open
university , <sup><span style="color: red;">6b</span></sup> <span style="color: red;">BSc</span>( Calcutta University ) of Residence Swamiji Road,
South Habra, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>24 Parganas(north), West
Bengal, India<o:p></o:p></span></a></div>
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<sup><span lang="EN-US" style="color: red; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339">7</a></span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339"> BSc (Indira Gandhi Open University) MSc(PUSHA) Asst Professor;Institute of Hotel management; Government of India; Chennai</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Hello! Are We Alone? If You're Like Me, You May
Want to Know Me!Bhattacharya et. al.</span></i></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Abstract</span></i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="Default" style="line-height: 95%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 36.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: windowtext; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 95%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339">A thin-layer near the surface of earth is teeming with life of huge
diversity: from micro<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:QH" datetime="2019-11-30T12:25">-</del></span>organisms to plants, animals, and possibly
even more intelligent species humans! Up till now, human
forms the only known samples of intelligent civilized life in the Universe? We
humans accepted that the laws and concepts of physics and chemistry can be
applied throughout entire cosmos. Is there then a general biology as well
throughout cosmos?Is there then also life beyond our planet earth? Pinpoints of
light in the night sky probably always made human<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T12:50">s</ins></span> speculate about
the existence of many super earths and exo<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:QH" datetime="2019-11-30T12:26">-</del></span>planets, but the
presence of such super earths/exo-planets orbiting many stars/red dwarfs other
than our sun has become a proven reality only within the last 20 years or
so. While the vast majority of the more than450 of 4034 exo<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:QH" datetime="2019-11-30T12:26">-</del></span>planets that are
known to date are gas giants like our Jupiter and Saturn, some spectacular
discoveries of about 20 planets of less than 10 earth masses have already
indicated thatthey are rocky planets with conditions suitable to harbor life
are probably<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T12:52">.</del></span>one of the big unknowns till date how
likely it is for life to emerge once all conditions are right and how many of
them are civilized. There is no lack of building blocks of life in space time<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><sup>]</sup>!</b>The number of molecules
fundamental to earth's biochemistry that have already been found in the
interstellar medium, planetary atmospheres and on the surfaces of comets,
asteroids, meteorites and interplanetary dust particles is surprisingly large.
Giant "factories", where complex molecules are being always
synthesized,might appear to make carbonaceous compounds ubiquitous in the universe.
If the genesis of life arises from chemistry with a high probability, we may
speculate whether this process occurred more than once on earth itself also,
leading to the existence of a terrestrial “shadow biosphere”with a distinct tree
of life. Moreover, there are several other promising targets within the solar
system, namely our moon,mars, Europa, Enceladus, and, for biochemistry based on
a liquid other than water, “Titan”. Evidence for life is not easy to discover<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T12:55">,</ins></span>
any chemical footprint needs to be unambiguously characteristic, and to exclude
an abiogenic origin. The most powerful probe would result from returning a
sample to a laboratory on earth. Search for extra-terrestrial intelligence<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:QH" datetime="2019-11-30T12:30">"</del></span>
(SETI) experiments had provided so fara negative result. However<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:QH" datetime="2019-11-30T12:29">,</ins></span>
these have probed only up to about 200 light-years distance, whereas the
centre of the milky way is 25,000 light-years away from earth. And, even
if there is no other intelligent life in the milky way, it could still be
hosted in another of the remaining hundreds of billions of other galaxies.
Advanced efforts are now on the drawing board or already underway for the
further exploration of the solar system and the detection of biomarkers in the
atmospheres of extra-solar planets, while searches for signals of
extra-terrestrial intelligence are entering a new era with the deployment of
the next generation of radio telescopes, or nano-probes or DNA viral probes.The
search for life elsewhere is nothing but a search for ourselves, where we came
from, why we are here, and where we will be going after death in this planet.
It encompasses many, if not all, of the fundamental questions not only in biology,
physics, and chemistry, but also in philosophy, psychology, religion and the
way in which humans interact with their environment and each other. The
question of whether we are alone in the universe still remained unanswered
before humankind, with no scientific evidencesyet supporting one possible
outcome or the other. If, however, extra-terrestrial life does exist, an
emerging new age of exploration may well allow living generations to witness
its detection.<o:p></o:p></a></span></i></div>
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<a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Keywords:
</span></i></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">astrobiology,
extra-terrestrial life,evolution,Frank Drake equation, Galactic Habitable Zone,genetics,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Origin of life, , SETI exoplanets, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></span></i></a></div>
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<a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339"><br /></a></div>
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<a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">*<b><i>Author for Correspondence </i></b>E-mail:profpkb@yahoo.co.in</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: windowtext; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></a></div>
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<a href="http://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/2339"><br /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: windowtext; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p> </o:p></span><i style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Hello! Are We Alone? If You're Like Me, You May
Want to Know Me!Bhattacharya et. al.</span></i></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">INTRODUCTION</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 95%;">Alien life forms are generally regarded
as the stuff of science fiction and fantasy and subject for/from the movies by
several times Oscar winner Hollywood director Steven Spielberg.But both SETI (<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Search for extra-terrestrial intelligence),</span>(hile
philosophers and biologists may debate the meaning of the term 'intelligence',
for the purposes of the SETI project intelligence simply means the ability to
build large radio telescopes and transmitter of high-powered radio signals or
intense laser beams and NASA's Exobiology Program, which seeks to understand the
origin, evolution and distribution of life in the universe, researchers are
about to begin the SETI Microwave observing project Radio Telescopes around the
world which will search for signals produced by other intelligence. There are
of course two schools of thoughts about intelligent life out there in the galaxy
.It is argued that life on the planet earth, and especially intelligent life,
is the result of an incredibly unlikely set of circumstances; and there is no
intelligent life anywhere else in our milky way galaxy,perhaps none in the
entire universe. But according to the opposing school argument, there are so
many stars and planets in the galaxy that, provided there is even a small
chance of intelligence developing on any one planet (super earth) it must have
happened many times on many different planets. Nobody seems to take the middle
view, that life is restricted to just a few planets in our galaxy; either it
exists solely on earth, or there are many inhabited planets or super earths. If
the SETI project detects just one signal, the implication will be that we are
not alone, and that evolutionary biology is an inherent characteristic of
certain locations in the universe planets like earth<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[1]<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 95%;">Building
material for life according to these authors <span style="color: red;">-:</span> Astronomy
related<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 95%;">What are the requirements for
development of life (simple, complex or intelligent)in universeespecially in
our galaxy milky way star’s planets?First of all, let us(the authors), compose
a list of possible astronomy related requirements for development of life on
the planet earth or if evolved in other worlds of our galaxy the milky way.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</v:imagedata></v:shape></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:09"><o:p></o:p></ins></span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Fig. 1:
</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">2nd
Generation Stars with Heavy Elements</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:25"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
</div>
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<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:25"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Large planetary family to absorb debris<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:11">.</ins></span><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:10"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
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<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:10"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Iron core to generate magnetosphere<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:11">.</ins></span><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:10"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
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<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:10"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Planet massive enough to retain its
atmosphere<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:11">.</ins></span><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:10"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
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<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:10"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Collision with planetoids to create
voids in tectonic plates and large moon(Please see also at URL
LINK (http://www.spacedaily.com/news/life-01×1.html)).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Spectral Type
Stars: G, Late F, Early Ka Late F or Early K Type Star are also Candidates for Having
Life-Bearing Planets<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Stable Intensity
of Star</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:12"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
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<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:12"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 97%; margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Large moon to stabilize
rotation because without large moon the rotational axis of the planetwillbe
unstable<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:12"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:12">.<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Plate tectonic activity<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:13"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:13">.<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Water(ocean must be) by cometary’s
seeding<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:13"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:13">.<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Recent nearby nova to
clear out interstellar dust<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:13">.</ins></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:14"><br /></del></span></span></div>
Time between large impactors for life<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:14"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span><br />
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<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:14"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Main Sequence Star</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Please see LINK http://homepage.sunrise.ch/homepage/schatzer/Alpha-Centauri.html)<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:14"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
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<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:14"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Adequate Age for Life to Evolve<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:15">.</ins></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:14"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
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<o:p></o:p><br />
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Orbit within ' the Habitable Zone'<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:15">.</ins></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:14"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
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<o:p></o:p><br />
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Avoid close orbit and
being tidally locked to star<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:15"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
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<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:15"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 97%; margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Not within a dense star
cluster<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:15"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
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<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:15"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Sudden, occasional
environmental/ecological changes to encourage evolution<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:15">.</ins></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Planetary Worlds whose Mass is between
0.5 and 10 Earth Masses</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">(the current theoretical
optimum size, gravity, etc<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:15">.</ins></span> for which life’s development is
favorable due to the ability to hold atmospheres, plate tectonics, magnetic
fields, etc.): Too little mass and the planet won’t be able to keep its
atmosphere (and inevitably liquid water) for longer than a few billion years;
too much mass and odds are fairly good that it will retain hydrogen and helium,
thereby adding more mass to the planet that allows it to trap more H+ and He-
thus starting a cycle that transforms the planet into a gas giant </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"> URL (http://www.astrobio.net/news/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=436&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Earth-Like' Conditions for Life</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Oxygen to nitrogen ratio in
atmosphereThe oxygen to nitrogen ratio is determined by the presence of life
and is, as such, self-regulated by life oxygen to nitrogen ratio in atmosphere<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:17"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:17">.<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">If larger: advanced life
functions would proceed too quickly. <span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:18"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
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<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:18"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">If smaller: advanced
life functions would proceed too slowly<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:18">.</ins></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 97%; margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo7; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; mso-text-indent-alt: -18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Radioactive methane gas
generated by volcanism or like nearly all methane in our own atmosphere is
produced by bacteria and other life<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:18">.</ins></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Presence of volcanoes [2]<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Commets Impact</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">[2]<b><i><o:p></o:p></i></b></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Methane and
water are very important to any carbon based life[2]<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
Frank Drake Equation forTechnological Civilization in the Milky Way Galaxy</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:19"><o:p></o:p></del></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;">Universe or our galaxy is possibly
teaming with life according these authors particularly in the G and K class
stars in the Galactic Habitable Zone(HZ) [2]. How many planets may be there in
that galactic habitable zone?More than 4000 [2]We consider that life itself is
fairly common throughout this galaxy.How can we estimate the number of
technological civilizations that might exist among the stars? While working as
a radio astronomer at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Green Bank,
West Virginia, Dr. Frank Drake (he was once the Chairman of the Board of the
SETI Institute) conceived an approach to bind the terms involved in estimating
the number of technological civilizations that may exist in our galaxy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;">The Drake
Equation</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;">, as it has become known, was first
presented by Drake himself in 1961 and identifies specific factors thought to
play a role in the development of such civilizations<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[3]</span>. Although there is no unique solution to this equation, it is
a generally accepted tool used by the scientific community to examine these
factors<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:23">.</ins></span>
The equation is usually writtenas:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">N=R*×fp×ne×fl×fi×fc×L<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Where, N= The number of civilizations in the milky way galaxy
whose electromagnetic emissions are detectable, R* =The rate of formation of
stars suitable for the development of intelligent life,fp= The fraction of
those stars with planetary systems ne= The number of planets, per solar system,
with an environment suitable for lifefl= The fraction of suitable planets on
which life actually appears fi= The fraction of life bearing planets on which
intelligent life emerges fc= The fraction of civilizations that can develop a
technology that releases detectable signs of their existence into space, and L=
The length of time such civilizations release detectable signals into space.
Drake himself estimates the final number of communicating civilizations in the
galaxy to be about 10,000. As per Drake, wemay calculate, for example, 0.333333333
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">7,300,613.497 planets may be containing
any kind of life, intelligent or not.</span>0.333333333 <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">973415.1329 "Jurassic" worlds or any other whose most
intelligent species is sub-sentient.</span>0.333333333 <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">12.16768916 planets whose most intelligent species is within (but not
over) 5000 years of current Western World technological development i.e.</span>
~12 worlds with<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> 'planets whose most
intelligent species is within (</span>where life evolved without artificial
intervention)<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">.So planets with</span>
'advanced technical civilizations are quite rare, if we consider modern civilizations
not more than 5000 years old and if the average age of a civilization is a
million years, that increases the number of <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">intelligent species</span> civilizations to 2400. In 2001, for the first
time, the researchers estimated how many planets might lie in the
"habitable zone[2]" around stars, where water is liquid and
photosynthesis was possible. The results suggest that an inhabited earth-like
planet(Super earth) could be as little as a few hundred light years away[2]. So
it is obvious that within the limits of our existing technology, any practical
search for distant intelligent life must necessarily be a search for some
manifestation of a distant technology<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:29">, </del></span><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:29">. </ins></span>The National
Research Council of US has emphasized the relevance and importance of searching
for evidence of the electromagnetic signature of distant civilizations. The
late astronomer Professor Carl Sagan FRS, estimated that there might be a
million technological civilizations in our galaxy alone who are able to
communicate with us.Frank Drake offered the number 10,000. John Oro, a pioneering
comet researcher, calculated that the milky way is sprinkled with a hundred
civilizations. And finally there are also skeptics like Ben Zuckerman, an
astronomer at UCLA, who thinks we may as well be alone in this galaxy if not in
the universe. All the estimates are however highly speculative. The fact
remains that there is yet no conclusive evidence of any life beyond ourearth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Simple Life or Complex
Life or Intelligent Life<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Simple
life in some form microscopic may be more and more than complex life form or
intelligent life form that understands physics or mathematics and target of SETI
that may also does exist. Recent life forms have been also discovered that do
not need solar energy to survive. Bacteria can live on energy derived from
chemical reactions rather than photosynthesis[2]. And, higher life forms
survive by consuming the bacteria. So evolving to complex organisms is highly
possible. More complex life will certainly be rarer. If at all they exist we do
not believe that we will ever make contact with them. Think once about the
vastness of space and the age of the universe. The vast distance between stars
and galaxies makes it less likely that any other life will be found because it
takes too long to travel and combined with the increased rarity, it is
extremely unlikely we could just go to the "next star over" and find
complex life there<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:33">.</del></span>[4]. Finally, with the age of the
universe, other civilizations could have grown and died out long before life
even started to develop here. So what are the chances we could travel somewhere
within a reasonable distance<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:34">?</ins></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">PanspermiaTheory
in Cosmos<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
big yet unsolved question is “are we alone in this universe?” If and even
multiple universes are present,then is there also chance of development of life
in planet or phantasmal in those universe[5]? Paul Devis of Australian center
for astro-biology Macquire university retired the claim of astro-biologists that
life is cosmic in pattern bound to arise under earth like conditions and likely
to spread across the galaxies. He first raised question <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">‘are we alone in the cosmic eternity”<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:36">.</ins></span> Or life also
existed in extraterrestrial planets or atmosphere or in asteroids where from it
came through a rocket system. </span>Our heavenly (expired in 2006)mom late Mrs.Bani
Bhattacharya(1935 ,2006), of residence7/51 Purbapalli, PO- Sodepur, District-24
Parganas(North) Kol-110,West Bengal,India, used to tell our brothers and sister
in our child hood times in 1960s such kinds of peculiar stories. She had
auditory hallucination. She had a false belief of Panspermia theory, i.e., life
exists throughout cosmos. People from extraterrestrial of other galaxies, other
planets used to tell her various stories or used to speak with her. Really
civilized <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">life also existed in
extraterrestrial planets or atmosphere or other universe?</span> If it was so,
on the countless other planets that may circle other suns, in same distances
from their sun, as our earth circles our sun in a distance, life may exist. It
may exist as organic molecule like carbon molecule DNA or RNA based life, as
life on our earth (then there the evolutionary pattern would probably be same
as it happened in our earth we authors consider so) or they may be different.
Based on other molecule (let us say silica based, Iron based,<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:38">sulph</ins></span><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:39">u</ins></span><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:38">r </ins></span>based
DNA or RNA) with other types of evolutionary system and adaptation to their
environment. What we think about life is based on chains of carbon atoms with a
few atoms life phosphorus, <span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:38">sulph</ins></span><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:39">u</ins></span><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:38">r </ins></span>and
nitrogen. One may speculate that one may have life with some other chemical
basis such as silicon, iron but carbon atoms should have most favorable
case(Life in the universe sated by Prof. S.W. Hawkings FRS)<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:39">.</ins></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Francis Crick, the Nobel Laureate </span>for
discovering the double helix structure of DNA molecule, once wrote ostensibly
to answer “<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Enrico Framis”,another Nobel
laureate for his famous question “…if there are intelligent beings in the
galaxy why are they only in earth</span>?” and <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Crick assessed the hypothesis known as “Directed Panspermia hypothesi</span>s”,
that is to say a variant of Arrethenious 19th century theory modified, in that
Crick considered “whether life was deliberately planted in earth by some God?”
i.e. evolution from extraterrestrial space?<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:41">.</del></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Answer that Francis Crick gave to
EnricoFramis “</span><i>that life on earth could well have originated elsewhere
in the galaxy and that there had been time enough for intelligent beings to
evolve elsewhere. A suitable environment and to have dissipated prokaryotic and eukaryotic
microorganisms by rocket or asteroid to this planet where life may have
developed” </i>Crick however admitted that the theory of “Directed Panspermia”
although suffered from possible paucity of evidences.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">In
the great darkness of space time, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">between
stars there are condensed dark matter</span>(composed of gas, dusts, organic
matter) and dark energy (we yet do not know composition of dark energy) with <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">dozens of different kinds of organic
molecules. The abundance of these molecules further suggests that stuff of life
is everywhere in the cosmos. A very pertinent question raised by present authors mind
is “Is our universe especially designed to produce human race?” The possibility
of life is on some of thousands of planets in our milky way galaxy even or in
other galaxies of universe or may be in other universes</span> if there are
multiple universes as per string theory[5].<i>Life may have never arose
somewhere, on the other hand it may have arose and died and or never evolved
beyond the simplest form or in some planets there may be life which developed
more intelligent civilization, more advanced than human civilization on the
surface of earth. </i>The biologists and physicists say that our planet “the earth”
is perfectly suitable one for evolution now. Moderate temperature,liquid water,
oxygen, nitrogen in air, greenhouse effect and so on were helpful for
development of life here. We the earthlings are supremely well adapted to this
environment, because we grew up here in three-dimensional form from
three-dimensional molecule very complex organic molecule DNA/RNA in three
dimensional space and one dimensional time on this earth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">In
the beginning of our universe, many say that there was the Big Bang, and only
physics, the mostly and yet undiscovered laws of universe. Then chemistry came
along at milder temperatures; when elementary particles quarks with its color
ultimately formed nucleons and then atoms; “Of course there was no carbon when
universe began 15 billion years ago. It was so hot that all the matters
were in form of quarks or Higgs particles and or <b>zero rest mass Rupak particles</b> and
then protons and neutrons came. However as the universe expanded it became
cool.After one minute of the Big Bang the temperature fell to billion degrees
at which temperature neutrons started to decay to protons. If this happened
then, all the matter in the universe ended up into simple matter hydrogen. Some
of the neutrons probably collided with protons and stuck together to form next
element Helium whose nucleus consist of two(2) neutrons and two(2) protons. But
no elements like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur were there in
the early universe. The universe continued to expand and further cooled. Some
regions would have higher density than others. The gravitational attraction of
extra matter in those regions slowed down their expansion and eventually
stopped expansion. And they collapsed to form proto galaxies –-> galaxies</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">
proto stars</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">stars starting
about two billion years from the Big Bang moment. From the stars planets were
formed. Our solar system was formed about ten billions years after the Big
Bang. The earth was formed largely out of the heavier elements including, hydrogen,
carbon, and oxygen<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[4].</span> These
united to give more and more complex organic molecules ever most complex largest
molecule on earth the RNA, DNA, enzymes, and genes epegenes which in turn
associated into organized aggregates and cell membranes, defining the most
primitive cells out of which life emerged in this planet.<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Chemistry and Biochemistry </span>may be
then considered <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">as </span>the science of
matter and of its transformations, and <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">life
in this planet </span>is its highest form of expression of biochemistry.
Chemistry and notably supra-molecular chemistry thus entertained a double
relationship with biology of life in this planet.The progression from
elementary particles to the nucleus, the atom, the molecule, the super-molecule
RNA and the supra-molecular assembly of bio organic represents steps up the
ladder of supra-intelligence <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">complexity
that happened here</span>. Particles interacted to form atoms, atoms to form
molecules, molecules to form super molecules and supra-molecular assemblies,
etc. At each level a novel feature appeared that however did not exist at a
lower one. Thus a major line of development of chemistry to form life is
towards more and more complex systems and the emergence of complexity. The
highest level of complexity is expressed in the highest form of matter, living
matter, life, which itself culminated in the human brain, the plasticity of the
neural system, epigenesis, consciousness and thought. For this<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T16:30">,</ins></span>
what took the active role<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T16:31">,</ins></span> is the Darwinian evolution that might
also be brought into parallel with the recent development, via procedures of
both chemical synthesis and molecular biology, of <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">molecular diversity methods </span>that combined the generation of large
repertoires of molecules with highly efficient various selection procedures,
adaptations, and conflicts, to obtain products presenting specific properties<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T16:32">.</ins></span>The
techniques of amplification by replication used in these methods would bear
relation to the spontaneous generation of the target superstructures by the
operation of self<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T16:33">-</ins></span>processes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">A
further major development along these lines, concerns the design of molecular
species displaying the ability to form by <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">self-replication</span>.With respect to the <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">frontiers of life </span>itself<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T16:33">,</ins></span> arises three
basic questions to these authors mind which may be today asked: How it appeared
in cosmos? Where are places it appeared? Why it appeared?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
first concerns the origin of life on this planet<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T16:38">,</ins></span> the earth only as
we know it, of our biological world. But is it true for only this planet? The
second considers the possibility of extraterrestrial life, within or beyond the
solar systems, beyond galaxies, or beyond even our universe. The third question
wonders why life has taken the forms we know; it has as corollary the question
whether other forms of life can (and do) exist: is there “artificial life”?; it
also implies that one might try to set the stage and implement the steps that
would allow, in a distant future, the creation of artificial forms of life.
Such an enterprise, which one cannot (and should not) at the present stage
outline in detail except for initial steps, rests on the presupposition that
there may be more than one, or several expressions of the processes
characterizing life. It thus invites to the exploration of the <i>“frontiers of
other lifes”</i>and of the <i>chemical evolution </i>of living worlds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Questions
have been addressed about which one may speculate, let one’s imagination wander,
perhaps even set paths for future investigations. However, where the answers
lie is not clear at present<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T16:39">,</ins></span> and future chemical research towards
ever more complex systems will uncover new modes of thinking and new ways of
acting that we at present do not know about and may even be unable to imagine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">What are the
Extraterrestrial Contributions for Life in this Planet?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;">An excess of L-amino acids was detected
in Murchison and Murray, two meteorites of the carbonaceous chondrite
class,although some discrepancies in the reported results remain to be yet
resolved. Cronin <i>et al. </i>originally discarded the evidence for small excesses
of L-enantiomers in Murchison as controversial and possibly caused by
terrestrial contamination<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[6]</span>.
Later, however,they themselves found an enantiomeric excess of various
amino acids that have never been reported, or are of limited occurrence<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T16:42">,</del></span>on
earth <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[7, 8].</span>The detection of a
significant <sup>15</sup>N enrichment in individual amino acid enantiomers from
Murchison, when was compared with their terrestrial counterparts, it confirmed
that the source of these amino acids was extraterrestrial and not any
terrestrial contamination.Carbonaceous chondrites were formed ~4.5 billion years
ago (i.e.,before the origin of life on Earth). There is still some
controversy regarding the actual origin of those meteoritic amino acids (i.e.,on
the meteorite parent body via Strecker synthesis in liquid water <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[3, 7]</span> or in the interstellar medium
followed by incorporation into the parent body <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[6, 8].</span> Experiments with interstellar ice analogues have shown that
the UV-light–induced synthesis of amino acids was possible under the types of
conditions likely to be found in interstellar dust <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[9</span>, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">10</span>]. No matter
which scenario is the correct one, the finding of an excess of L-aminoacids in
carbonaceous chondrites strongly suggests that the excess is of extraterrestrial
origin and existed in the solar system before the origin of life on earth.<sup><o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">The experiments further indicated that
at least some amino acids did not undergo complete racemization during their
residencein space, transit to earth, atmospheric entry, and surface impact.The
methyl amino acids found to exhibit considerable excessof the L-enantiomer in
the Murchison meteorite are reportedlyquite resistant to racemization <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[7].</span>Racemization half-lives of
meteoritic <span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T16:46">-</del></span>amino acids, the ones used for
protein synthesisin contemporary terrestrial organisms, were calculated
from models, taking into account the various environments that suchan amino acid
was exposed to<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T16:47">,</ins></span> in space <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[11].</span>In the temperature range between 150 and 300<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T16:47"> </ins></span>K,
the racemization half-lives variedbetween amino acids by approximately 5-orders
of magnitude,with glutamic acid and iso-leucine predicted to retain an
enantiomericexcess much longer than phenylalanine, aspartic acid, and
alanine. These calculations suggested that the reported D/L value forglutamic
acid in Murchison of 0.3was close to the originalvalue [9], whereas that of
alanine (D/L=0.5) could correspondto original values in the range of 0.5 to 0.35
[<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">11</span>]. Note,however, that others
did not observe any enantiomeric excess in alanine <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[12].</span> Other experiments suggested that amino acid racemization at
high temperatures, as may be encountered duringatmospheric entry and surface
impacts of space bodies, wouldbe very rapid [13]. Incorporation into rocks of a
size to prevent their being heating all the way through should, however,
overcomethis problem.The presence of a variety of amino acids in meteorites
raisesthe further question of whether not only the source of enantiomericexcess
in terrestrial amino acids but also possibly the provenanceof pre-biotic amino
acids themselves was extraterrestrial. Meteoritesare actually considered
unlikely to have made a significant contribution to the total amount of pre-biotic
organics <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[14].</span> In contrast,
impacts of carbonaceous asteroids and comets during the period of heavy
bombardment 4.5–3.8 billionyears ago are thought to have been important sources
not justof amino acids but also a variety of prebiotic organic molecules<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[15, 16].</span>Even greater amounts of
organic material are likelyto have been accreted from interplanetary dust
particles, which bare currently contributing ~3.2×10<sup>5</sup> kg.year<sup>-1</sup>
of intact organics.How large a portion of the total inventory of organics on
earlyearth came from extraterrestrial sources depends on a varietyof
factorsforemost among them is the actual composition of earth’searly atmosphere
and hence the extent of endogenous production [2].Whereas Miller and Urey
assumed a fully reducing early terrestrialatmosphere for their famous
experiments, it is now thought thatit was non-reducing or slightly reducing <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[16–18].</span> Theefficiency of organic
synthesis decreased rapidly as a functionof the H<sub>2</sub>/CO<sub>2</sub>
ratio. It has been calculated that with UV lightas the energy source, a yearly
production of 2×10<sup>11</sup><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T16:57"> </ins></span>kg organicswould have occurred
in a reducing atmosphere, whereas only 3×10<sup>8</sup> kgyear<sup>-1</sup>
would be produced in a neutral atmosphere (H<sub>2</sub>/CO<sub>2</sub>=0.1) [<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">16]</span>. Recent experiments suggested that
high-energyparticles, but not UV light, were able to generate amino
acidprecursors under mildly reducing conditions <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[14].</span>The delivery to earth of large amounts of extraterrestrial
carbonaceouscompounds, including many of the building blocks of life,
mightactually fall under a new expanded definition of panspermia[<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">19].</span> Originally, however, the term <i>panspermia</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">was</span> referred tothe transfer of some
form of viable extraterrestrial organism.Theoretically, the transfer of such
organisms between planetswithin our solar system is possible on rocks ejected
by largeimpacts [20]. A majority of these ejecta were heated to
temperaturesthat would kill all microbes; however, some remain almost un-shocked<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[21].</span> Further heating during the
ascent through the atmosphereof the home planet requires that the ejecta be of
a size thatprevents heating to 100°C all through, with a diameter of>0.2<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:18"> </ins></span>m
estimated as necessary. Similar heating occurs duringthe entry into and passage
through the atmosphere of the targetplanet and the landing there. In between,
microbes would haveto survive thousands of years of travel through space.
Spaceis a very hostile environment in which UV and ionizing radiation,extreme
vacuum, andvery-very cold temperatures individually<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:19">,</del></span> andeven more so
in combination, are potentially lethal <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[14].</span>
Theoreticaland experimental results indicate, however, that protectionfrom
these sterilizing factors however may be possible <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[14].</span>The ability of some bacteria to form spores makes them
attractivecandidates for extraterrestrial organisms that might have
introducedlife to earth<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:21">,</ins></span>explained
later in this article[22]. </span>Spores represent a dormant state of any
bacteria. Thisoffers the advantage of the absence of (detectable) metabolism and
high resistance to a variety of physical insults, includingthose imposed by
prolonged space travel. Only a small proportion of spores were found to survive
space travel of up to 6 years(i.e., a minute fraction of the actual time
they may have tospend in space during transfer between planets <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[22].</span>A single living organism may be
enough to seed life on another planet, however.Our Panspermia theories offer the
advantage of overcoming the difficulties arising from the shortness of the time
interval during which life on earth must have become established. Life could not
have arisen, or would have been destroyed if it did, during the heavy bombardment
period that ended about 3.8 Gyear ago. Micro fossils and stromatolites
indicate that complex life must have originated morethan 3.5 Gyr ago, and
evidence of biologically mediated carbon isotope fraction puts the existence of
life back even farther,to ~3.8 Gyr ago we do belief. Some biologists say
that life must have arisen around 10 billion years ago.This leaves a very
narrow window of time for the emergence of terrestrial life and adds some
plausibility to scenarios in which a preformed extraterrestrial life form started
life on earth as we authors think it so. Ultimately, however, postulating an
extraterrestrial origin not just for organic bio molecules but for entire
organisms simply shifts the location of the origin of life, without
addressing the underlying questions of how life arose and at what point during
this process homo chirality became established.Clearly the questions of life’s
origin and the relationship of its emergence to the phenomenon of homo-chirality
are the subject of active investigation. To conclude this review, we are struck
by the ‘‘symmetry’’ of some of the possible mechanisms linking these questions
and the expressions of these in aspects of biology. Homo-chirality, a
prerequisite of life’s emergence in some scientists’ view, might arise as a
consequence of the roles played by cosmology (e.g.,by cold dark matter and cold
dark energy) and occur at the far edge of galaxies. The conjunction of these
(the dark) with our increasing understanding of the processes that control
nuclear fusion and supernovas in providing both the building blocks and the
energy (the light) to drive life’s processes leads us to conclude with a quote
alluding to the symmetry of light and dark.Thus the darkness bears its fruit,
and proves itself.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Life
in Other Universes<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:25">:</ins></span><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:25">-</del></span> Possible with Symmetry
Breaking according to Us!<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Though a big bang like event happened in
the early universe, universe spent a period of time in the early phase (~1<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:26"> </ins></span>s
Plank’s time) in a super cooled stage. In the super cooled stage its density (3<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:26"> </ins></span>K)
was then dominated by large positive constant vacuum energy and false vacuum.
The super cooled stage was then followed by appearance ofmultiple bubbles
inflation. The temperature variation occurred in 3<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:26"> </ins></span>K
cosmological background imprinted some 10<sup>~35</sup> sec in pre-inflationary
stage and grand unified theory (GUT) happened there with generation of trillions
and trillions degrees of temperature. As per old inflationary theory of Big
Bang, there appeared bubbles of true vacuum and inflation blowed up a small
casually connected region of the universe that was something much like the
observable universe of today within a bubble<b>.</b> This actually preceded
large scale cosmological homogeneity and were reduced to an exponentially small
number<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:27">;</ins></span>
the present density of any magnetic monopoles, that according to many of
particle physicist<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:28">,</ins></span> GUT, and would have been produced in
the pre-inflationary phase. In the old inflationary theory, the universe must
be homogeneous(and a little bit un-homogeneous too) in all its directions and
was isotropic. In old inflation theory, the super cooled stage was married by
appearance of bubbles of the true vacuum, the broken symmetry of ground state.
The model of old inflation theory however was later on abandoned<b>, </b>because
the exponential expansion of any super cooled state always present the bubbles
from merging and complicate the phase transition. Moreover in true sense<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:29">,</ins></span>
universe is not totally homogenous<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:29">,</ins></span> but in small scale<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:29">,</ins></span>non-homogenous
too.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">The cosmic inflation theories of Big
Bang postulate that our universe underwent a period of extremely rapid
expansion shortly after the Big Bang. But how the transition from inflation to
today’s more slowly expanding universe occurred has not yet cleared before the
world. It is also not known before world that why did inflation occur in the
first place and not happening now?The answer lies in that probably the universe
began in every possible ways we today can imagine and vast numbers of these
universes withered away<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:30">.</del></span> and universe did not have just one
unique beginning and history but a multitude of different ones.<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">It is our authors multiverse concept which states
that</span>“The present day universe would have begun as multiple bubbles in
the inflationary cosmos [5]. One of such bubbles is probably our universe. But
bubbles according to calculation were nothing but vacuum-matter- and energy,
would never have developed under such conditions”. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">There happened an unusual phase
transition in mixture of helium isotopes. Normal fluid changes their phases
from gas to liquid to solid. Let us say<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:32">,</ins></span> following a
bubble requires similar to the one that theorists believed ended inflation. But
the mixture of super fluid helium changed its properties in completely smooth
uniform fashion? Applied to cosmology, the super fluid transition allowed the
entire universe to gently roll from inflation to present day condition. Helium<sub>-3</sub><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:33">,</ins></span>
an isotope of helium with two protons and one neutron has thus a very unusual
property. Helium<sub>-3</sub> can undergo the phenomenon of symmetry breaking.
Normally<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:33">,</ins></span>
pairs of atoms in the liquid phase have and angular momentum aligned in a
random direction. But when cooled, the helium atoms would snap into a single
alignment, spontaneously creating order of chaos. The symmetry breaking in
early universe lead to creation of every force of universe,except gravity.
Kibbles hypothesis says that cooling of early universe as it expanded created
all massive structures. Defects called cosmic strings that were the seed of
large nets ofgalaxies we see around us today.String theory is controversial
because it has evolved over past 2½ decades, almost without references of
experiment or observation and many views that it is more on super high branches
of mathematics then reality of physics<b>. </b><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Some versions of String theory however state possibility of electrical multi-universe.</span>String
theory predicts the existence of an enormous number of different “vacuum
states,” or space time bubbles with different properties, such as physical
constants or particle masses. Of an infinite number of bubbles, there could be 10<sup>500</sup>different
varieties. And though any underlying basic law of physics would remain the
same, the bubbles could nonetheless exhibit vast physical diversity. Some of
the string theory postulate that our universe may sit on 3D membrane or Brane
suspended in a higher dimensional space, the way on a two dimensional sheet of
paper sits in 3-D words. Such a string theory explains the end of inflationary
period through collision of our Brane with another similar Brane inmulti-universe
concept.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Nowadays, the multi- universe concept is
a hot topic for discussionat real-world scientific conferences. The question
arises as to whether all these other universes are going to be like ours “or
whether they will have different laws and the laws in our universe are in some
sense special.String theory, a favorite candidate (although unsubstantiated by
experiment) for explaining all of physical laws of universe; suggests that the multi-universe
encompasses bubbles hosting various sorts of physics. String theory predicts
the existence of an enormous number of different “vacuum states<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:38">,</del></span>”<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:38">,</ins></span>
or space time bubbles with different properties, such as physical constants or
particle masses. Of an infinite number of bubbles,there could be 10<sup>500</sup>different
varieties. And though any underlying basic law of physics would remain the
same, the bubbles could nonetheless exhibit vast physical diversity. Some of
those bubbles would not have lasted long enough for life, inflating but then
shrinking before any interesting chemistry commenced. Others would expand
forever, as seems the case with the bubble that humans occupy. In some, the
local laws of physics would have welcomed living things; others would have
permitted none of the particles and forces that conspire to build atoms,
molecules and metabolic mechanisms. It seems that universes come in all sizes
and flavors, with thebubble being the Goldilocks version, just right for life.
In other words, if the multiverse offers multiple bubbles that permit life to
evolve, humans would most likely live in an average bubble. If, for instance,
you throw out all the bubbles that would not allow life anyway, and then
calculate the average temperature of space in those that remain, humans should
measure a cosmic temperature that is not very far off from that average.
Somewhere in the cosmos, such a random mix of molecules has produced a brain
identical to yours in every respect, neurons in identical configurations, with
all your memories and perceptions<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:40">.</ins></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Which
Stars in Our Galaxy Milky Way?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;">Stars in our Galaxy Milky way-
estimates: 500 billion (Royal Greenwich Observatory). And these stars include
everything from M-Class (Red Dwarfs) to Enormous O-Class stars (very hot, very
fast burning, Blue stars). Our ownstar sun is Class G star.K class stars are.The
cooler and “redder” the star, the longer it remains on the main sequence
(barring the obvious exception of red giants). The previously-mentioned O-Class
(very hot blue) stars will likely last only a few dozen million years, barely
enough time for star dust to coalesce into planets. Furthermore, hotter stars
emit enormous quantities of ionizing radiation (UV or higher). In fact, large
stars tend to emit the bulk of their radiation in the UV band. Stars in classes
B (a lower level blue-white) and A (white) suffer similarly, though not to the
extreme extent as O-class ones. Nevertheless, these stars will last only a few
billion years at most. This may be long enough for simple life and perhaps even
the simplest animal life to form, but not likely enough to allow
technologically advanced life to arise (unless its evolution is incredibly
quick). F-class (white) is likely to last from 4 to 6 billion years, certainly
enough to give rise to complex life (perhaps even intelligent life).
Unfortunately, in the earth-term timeline<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:43">,</ins></span> at least, a white
sun will start to leave the main sequence just when intelligence does arise.
Timing truly is everything. So while it is certainly possible and even
plausible for a white sun to have a technically advanced civilization, we do
not find it particularly likely.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">By contrast, the red dwarf (M-class)
stars will be around for billions of years, much more than enough time for life
to form. Furthermore, they do not emit as much ionizing radiation as even our
own sun (G-Class), another factor favoring a life-friendly environment. Unfortunately,
the cooler the star, the narrower is its life zone. We personally interpret
this fact to mean that a red star’s HZ will be less likely to contain a planet
of any sort, let alone one with other preconditions necessary for life to have
a chance on it. Even if the red sun’s HZ does have a planet with the
appropriate gravity, atmospheric and other characteristics, odds are fairly
high that the planet will suffer from “rotation lock” (one face always facing
the star). This means one side will be in eternal day or close to it (thus
rendering it too hot) and one side will be in eternal night (rendering it too
cold). However, there is still at least some chance other mitigating factors will
come to play on such a planet (the hot spot over the planet may create
atmospheric convection that creates winds, thus spreading heat more evenly over
the planet). Obviously, a rotationally-locked planet’s twilight zone could
offer a happy medium in which life<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:46">,</del></span> and even intelligence can flourish
in theory. However, as I will discuss later, such a planet will have a much
more difficult time developing a sustainable high technology civilization, and
even a high-end pre-industrial civilization. G (yellow), K (orange), and
low-level white stars areplaces favorable for advanced civilization to arise.
If we include all G and K stars, plus about 1/3 of all F stars, these stars are
about 22% of all stars in the galaxy (Wikipedia). If M-class (red) stars78% of
all stars permit HZ planets without a rotation lock, then perhaps another 10%
of all stars (the hotter M-class ones) can be added to (though I admit this
number is rather arbitrary). So we can say that as many as 33% of all stars
could support a technical civilization, given other necessary planetary
conditions listed above. Such stars that are the appropriate age .if you are
content with finding significant life in any form, you will likely find it
around planets between 2 and 5 billion years old. This is certainly long enough
for life to form an oxygen atmosphere (strong evidence of life), though not
necessarily sentient life. Hopefully, by 20162020 the <i>Terrestrial Planet
Finder</i> (TPF) project will finally give the answers we all want: where there
are rocky crust planets orbiting around G to K class stars within 200‑300 light
years of earth. The TPF mission will survey number of earth-sized planets in
habitable zone orbits in the galaxy<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:50">.</ins></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">How willYou Define Intelligent Life in
the Galaxy?[23]<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">According to these authors, intelligence
is a prerequisite fortechnology development. Intelligence drives technology
development.We say intelligent life is life with the ability to learn something
and share that knowledge with others. Then, the only thing oneneed is time to
build up a civilization, which will automatically lead to the ability to
produce <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">radio waves</span> or any other
thing that is needed to call a life form intelligent<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:51">.</ins></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">Any Special Signal Received yet by SETI
as a Proof of Intelligent Life?</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 97%;">In August 1977, an Ohio State University
radio telescope detected an unusual pulse of radiation from somewhere near the
constellation Sagittarius. The nearest star in that direction is 220 light
years away. The 37<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:53">-</del></span><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:53"> </ins></span>seclong
signal was so startling that an astronomer monitoring the data scrawled
"Wow!" on the telescope's printout. The signal was within the band of
radio frequencies where transmissions are internationally banned on Earth<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[3]<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:53">.</ins></span></span> In February 2003, astronomers
with the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) project, used a
massive telescope in Puerto Rico to re-examine 200 sections of the sky which
had all previously yielded unexplained radio signals. These signals had all
disappeared, except for one which had become strongercame from a spot between
the constellations Pisces andAries. SETI has many signal detectors type.
Recently in 2008<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:54">,</ins></span> SETI signal detector called <span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:54"> </del></span>SonATA(SETI
on the ATA). Son ATA does everything that Prelude does, but it is a softwareonly
detector, capable of operating on commodity servers, without the
special-purpose hardware accelerators that had to be built into Prelude to make
it run in near-real time.On October 9, 2008 the X-band signal from the Rosetta
spacecraft was detected by the SonATA as a demsystem! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Fig. 2:</span></i></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">X-Band
Signal from the Rosetta Spacecraft was Detectedby the SonATA as a <span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:56"><br /></del></span></span></i></div>
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Demo System in October 2008.<b><o:p></o:p></b><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Figure 2
shows that detection. The Rosetta X-band signal is much stronger than the
signals fromVoyager Figure 2 [6]. After a half-century of scanning the
skies,SETI astronomers today have little to report. Why?<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:57">.</del></span> The problem could
be that SETI had been so long looking in the wrong place, at the wrong time,
and in the wrong way. "Why to waste time looking for old-style <i>radio
signals?</i> The advanced and intelligent aliens may use entangled particles
like neutrinos or some form of gravity waves to signal us.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Other
Technology to Detect ET Signals</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Neutrino
signaling has been studied bythe Kavli Institute of Theoretical Physics at the
University of California Santa Barbara, suggested that the more intelligentand
civilized aliens wouldrather opt for neutrino energies far above those
generated naturally by the sun and stars. Because there are very few energetic
neutrinos coming from any specific direction of space, a beam of high-energy
neutrinos that passed our way would be highly conspicuous. Contrast this with energetic
radio waves, which are generated by many compact astronomical sources; using
radio,intelligent ETs are in competition with the entire cosmos. Wesothink that
the intelligentaliens<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:59">,</ins></span> if any<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:59">,</ins></span> could use a
particle accelerator to collide and annihilate electrons and their
antiparticles (positrons) to make a narrow beam of neutrinos that can be aimed
at will.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">In contrast to the classic SETI target<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:59">,</ins></span> a continuous
narrow-band signal at a specific frequency<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T17:59">,</ins></span> a beacon would
show up spread across a range of frequencies in the form of a short blip, or
perhaps a more attention-grabbing blip-blip. As it happens, many blips have
been recorded throughout the lifetime of SETI, but very little follow-up has
resulted, and for good reason. The procedure when a radio telescope picks up
something odd is to move the antenna off target, to make sure the signal fades
(thus eliminating equipment malfunction), and then move it back on target
again. If the signal is still there the second time, a partner radio telescope,
preferably far away, is brought into play to confirm that the source is in fact
astronomical (and not a local mobile phone, for example). All this assumes that
the mystery signal will continue for long enough for the checking procedure to
be completed, which in practice could take several hours. But if a telescope
detects a momentary blip, there one moment, gone the next, the checking
procedure isnot possible. The biggest drawback of conventional SETI is the
immense time required for radio signals to pass between the stars. But there is
an<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:01">-</del></span>other<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:01">,</del></span>
more exciting<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:02">,</del></span> possibility. Humans could conduct a conversation
with an alien intelligence by proxy on a nearly real-time basis if the aliens
have sent a probe to the solar system, where the travel time for signals to earth
is measured in minutes or hours. Ronald Bracewell raised this possibility at
the inception of SETI, and it has been a recurring theme ever since. From the
standpoint of the aliens, the big plus of a probe is its “set and-forget”
character. With careful design, it might well outlive the civilization that
launched it. It doesnot need a massive antenna, unless required to report back
to HQ on the home planet. Radio telescopes on earth had no trouble picking up
the Pioneer 10 spacecraft at the edge of the solar system (before it finally
blinked off the air a few years ago) and its transmitter was no more powerful
than a Christmas tree light bulb. An alien probe could store a huge amount of
information in a tiny chip; once in communication with us, its supercomputer
could engage in an intensive educational and cultural exchange. In principle,
the probe could be any size at all, but for now I have in mind something the
size of a human communications satellite. In the not too distant future,we hope
thathumans will be able to build micro or nano-machines that store prodigious
amounts of information, and they could be used as space probes. Because of
their tiny size, they could be accelerated to high speeds (say 0.01% of the
speed of light) very cheaply, perhaps without the need for rockets. It may
still take a few million years for them to reach the target stars, but haste is
not an issue in the scenario I am exploring. We can readily imagine an advanced
alien civilization packaging mini-databanks in microscopic capsules and spewing
them around the galaxy in the millions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Possibility of Life inOur Solar System in thePlanets like Mars,Venus,
Saturn or inOur Moon<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">We authors are now going to discuss some of important
features of our planetary and our lunar environments which strongly contraindicate
presence of life on our moon, on Venus, or even on Mars. Let us (authors)consider
first the effect of temperature of the surfaces of these planets. Although many
organisms have only a limited temperature range to evolve and to survive, such
as the blue-green algae-can withstand greater extremes. Blue-green algae werereported
growing also in hot springs of the earthat temperatures approachingtowards 100°C.
Othermicroorganisms or organisms multiplyvery slowly attemperatures close to 0°C.
At much lower temperatures<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:09">,</ins></span> vital activity of all organisms must
cease ascellular cytoplasmfluid becomes frozen.Howeverat very low temperatures<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:10">,</ins></span>
in liquid nitrogen<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:10">,</ins></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">genetics,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">‑80°C),
many organisms could presumably be preserved forindefinite time although they
would not metabolize or grow. Many organisms are destroyed while inpasteurization
of milk. Standard bacteriological sterilization technique calls for
sterilization at 15 £ steam pressure for 15 min. This procedure
occasionally fails to destroy however some spores. However, a longer period of
exposure is successful. When exposed to dry heat, temperatures of 170°C are
required if sterilization is to be accomplished in 15 min. Four mechanisms
involved in sterilization can be recognized.Destruction ofany cell at 60°Cprobably
due to de<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:11">-</del></span>naturation
of proteins, and failure of thermophiles (those bacteria which can withstand
100°C or more like <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Streptococcus mitis</i>)
to be destroyed at this temperature perhaps reflects utilization of a different
type of protein (e.g., collagen proteinsdo not coagulate at 600°C).
Sterilization at 120°C in saturated steam indicates destruction of some of the
many hydrolysable chemicals of the organisms such as proteins and nucleic
acids. Thereare indications that oxidation has a major destructive role when
sterilization is carried out in dry air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 105%;">A fundamental
limitation is that of the instability of organic substances and amino acids.Almost
all organic chemicals becomethermodynamically unstable and become degrade at
rates which in the region of interest are exponentially increased with small
elevations in temperature. For instance, Alanine, one of the most stable amino
acids, is half destroyed in about 10 min at 300°C, in 10 h at 250°C,
and in 30 days at 2000°C.This well-known dependence of reaction kinetics
on temperature is also noted in the destruction of bacteria and sporeswith
rates changing by a factor of 10 for each 70 to 100°C in moist heat or for each
150 to 350°C in dry heat. Long exposures to temperatures below the conventional
sterilization regime may result in destruction of the organism. For instance,
one in 100,000 spores of the thermophilic facultative anaerobe <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bacillus stearotheormophilus</i> can survive
42 sec of exposure to superheated steam at 1770°C and only the same
fraction survive after 4,680 min of exposure at 1210°C.This data suggest
that comparable destruction would occur in 100 days at 1000°C with dry
heat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 105%;">The whole
question of thermal stability of some bacteria and spore organismsrequires
however more study, particularly observations of time-death curves for extended
periods at lower temperatures and very hot temperature of 1770°C. However, it
is unlikely that any present terrestrial form of any carbon basedlt handed
coileddouble helix DNAlife can withstand long exposure to temperatures above 1800°C
even under the most favorable conditions given by any forms of adaptation. Nor
does it seem likely that throughor by process of adaptation in any planets a
thermally resistant strain might be evolved in others planets whichwould be
strikingly more resistant than those now known.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 105%;">Water is a
second important requirement of any carbon based double helixDNA living
organisms whatever it may be when it has protoplasm or nucleoplasm in its cell
structure. Although some organisms and spores successfully withstand
desiccation and resume vital processes on or after rehydration, growth and
reproduction occur only when they aregiven the hydrated state. Oneof the most
striking examples is the water requirement of roots of plants. Researchshowed
that most plants will grow if the relative humidity of air in soil is between
98.91 and 99.83% but not at 98.90%, although at this lower humidity most plants
remain alive.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Another example,to me,moist meat is an excellent
culture medium for anaerobic bacteria. However, if the meat is kept dried and
maintained at a relative humidity of less than 20%,bacterial attack ceases.
Consider the fate of a small amount of physiologicalsaline solution, when it is
exposed to air of low humidity. Water, of course, is lost.Ultimately the volume
diminishes until the solution is supersaturated and NaClbegins to crystallize
out. If the relative humidity is less than about 30%,the process continues
until only dry solids remain. Protoplasm of any cellalso behaves in asimilar
manner, having no special affinity for water. At relative humidity ofabout 30%
and below, terrestrial living matter eventually loses nearly all its water.It
is a well-known fact that all growing and dividing cells are made of jelly like
cytoplasm<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:24">,</ins></span>
and in the nucleus<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:24">,</ins></span> nucleoplasm<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:24">,</ins></span>and these
consistmostly of water. Why is water essential to living things? Many answers
maybe given. Dehydrated protoplasm is very hard and stiff. How could then
chromosomaldivision and the other essentials of reproduction, including
reorganization of cells,occur in that dry state? How could transfer of
metabolites occur? Many syntheticsteps seem to involve assembly lines on which
metabolites are handed along.Many millions small molecules move freely within
the cell. The cellular fluid, which is mainly ofcourse<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:24">,</ins></span> water in this earth,acts
as a highway for rapid transfer of many substances inside or outside the cell.
Lifewithout water would be thus a very slow process, limited by solid state diffusion.
Or it might be another kind of life involving gaseous diffusion process of
cells or a different cellularfluid other than water. May be methane?<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:25">.</del></span>Water
also enters into many of the chemical processes of the cell as a reactantand as
such is completely essential to metabolism. Many biological reactionssuch as
hydrolysis of proteins, esters, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids involveliquid
water as a reactant. These reactions often are characterized by small negative
free energy changes. Thus, in the hydrolysis of proteins<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:25">,</ins></span> values in therange
of3,000 cal/mol have been quoted. In utilizing protein as food or
inreorganizing protein into new configurations<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:25">,</ins></span> the organism can
take advantage ofthis free energy change, and if a catalyzing enzyme is present<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:26">,</ins></span>
the reaction occursquickly. If liquid water is not present, the fugacity of
water is diminished and the free energy released in these hydrolysis reactions
can be changed substantially.For instance, if the partial pressure of water
were 1/1000 that of saturation, freeenergy of hydrolytic reactions would be
changed about +4 kcal/mol at 20°C.In such an environment<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:26">,</ins></span>
peptides would not hydrolyze but rather the reversereaction would occur
spontaneously. The amino acids and proteins would tend toreact to form
impossibly large molecules and the living system could not function unless a
means were devised to prevent untoward polymerization.The great capacity of
organisms to adapt is often cited. Superficially, the differencebetween a
bacterium and a human is enormous. However, when examinedin the light of
comparative biochemistry the contrast blurs. In detail<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:27">,</ins></span>most of the
important features are virtually identical, including the principal aminoacids,
enzyme systems, and the nucleic acids. The capacity of microorganismsto adapt
is likewise often told, but the actual alterations in enzyme systems ornucleic
acids (as a result of adaptation) are relatively trivial. Observation of
thecapacities of living systems on this earth provides no basis for optimism
that through adaptation<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:28">,</ins></span> terrestrial organisms could
circumvent the facts of thermal instability or those of chemical thermodynamics
if the organisms are carbon based DNA or RNA Life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Let me now turn then to a consideration of our
lunar and planetary environments.Mercury can be quickly dismissed. It has no
atmosphere and the face exposedto the sun reaches 340°C, while the dark side
approaches less than absolute zero. The planetsmore distant than Mars are too
cold. Only the moon of Saturn Titan, Venus, and Mars may deserveserious
consideration.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Our lunar surface presents a singularly hostile
environment, with temperaturesranging from intense cold at night to 1350°C at
the lunar equator. There is essentiallyno atmosphere, but rather a very high
vacuum. Intense lethal solarradiation penetrates to the lunar surface. No
liquid water is present. Watson<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i>estimated
that the vapor pressure of water on the moonis 1.4×10<sup>-12</sup> mm of mercury[24].
This corresponds to 3.5×10<sup>-13</sup> of the saturationvapor pressure at 0°C.
Under these conditions<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:31">,</ins></span> free energy of reactions
involvinghydrolysis would be changed by nearly +16 kcal, which would
constitute anenormous driving force toward polymerization of proteins. If an
organism wereto accompany a lunar rocket to the moon, its prognosis would be
indeed dubious.On exposure to the sun, unless completely encased in protective
vacuum-tightspace suit, its water simply would boil away and its organic
components would be gradually destroyed by radiation and heat. However a multi-cellular
organism<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:32">,</ins></span>
microscopic Taradigrades (also named as water bears)which is the toughestanimal
which has everbeendocumented (they canhoweverproduceglass like hard shieldsin
their cells to protect themselves in extreme hot above 1800°C and in
extremecold conditions and without water)can survivein spaceandin everywhereto
be present in the soil of our (in April 2019from the Israel lunar Lander named
Bereshhet, crashed on the moon in lastyear April) lunar surfacesurvived the
crashin thousands.This space craftthat crashedwhile landed on moonon last
spring in 2018had been carryinga backup of planet earth.The mission foundationa
nonprofit organization<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:34">,</ins></span> that aimedto amass librariesand
store themin variousspots around the solar systemfor safe keeping. This particular
collection containedhuman DNA samplesof human faces in international space
station, a CDRom like disc inscribed with 30 million pages of information and
dehydrated Tardigrades. When Targrades are dehydrated<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:35">,</ins></span> they are
virtually indestructible. On the face of danger, they enter this near death
state on their own and can manage to survivewithout water or even air, in
extreme hot or cold temperature where no microorganism cangrow or colonize,until
conditions improve. They can live this way for decades after decadeswithout an
issueand when rehydrated<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:36">,</ins></span> theyinstantly resume life as
normal.If the lunarlibrary isremained intactthrough the crash<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:36">,</ins></span>
it may be possiblyfor future missions to retrieve itand conduct tests on
tardigrades once they areback on the earth<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:37">;</ins></span>until thenthere is
a strong likelihoodthat earth is no longer the onlycelestial bodyin our solar
system that are supporting life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The moon is, of course, always close to us and
relatively easy to study. Venus and Mars are not so readily observed, nor so
definitely known. One measure of thedifficulty<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:37">.</del></span> of obtaining
trustworthy information concerning composition of theplanetary atmospheres is
the disagreement among authorities concerning fundamentalfacts. For instance,
Menzel and Whipple suggested that the surface of Venus might be completely
covered by an ocean [25].<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">There are features of the planetary environment,
however, which seem wellestablished and which have important bearing on the
questions of extra-terrestriallife.Venus has an atmosphere and is covered by a
dense cloud layer. These featuresare especially evident at inferior conjunction
when Venus appears as a crescentand the horns of the crescent are extended to a
variable degree. In contrast tothe moon and Mercury, which have no atmosphere
or clouds, Venus has a highalbedo<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:39">-</del></span><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:39">,</ins></span>a relatively high fraction
of incident light is not absorbed. What is thecomposition of the atmosphere?
Only one component has been quantitativelydetermined, carbon dioxide. The
measurement of this component, which was atriumph of astronomy, was performed
by Adams and Dunham in 1932[26]. Laterworkers were able to make an improved
estimate of the carbon dioxide content,which is now generally accepted as totaling
1,000 m atmospheres. Attempts to detect water or oxygen in the atmosphere
of other planets arehampered by the absorption of light by these components in
our own atmosphere.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">However, it is possible to take advantage of a
Doppler shift in wavelength, which Dunham described in the following:"A
qualitative examination of the infrared spectra of Venus failed to reveal any components
of the oxygen lines in the B band or of the water-vapor lines near8,000 A
which could be attributed to oxygen or water in the atmosphere of Venus<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[26, 27</span>].VOL, the radial velocity of
the planet averaged 14 km/sec during the period of observing,and this
would correspond to a separation of 0.37 A in the spectrum. "On the
basis of the present evidence, it seems unlikely that there can be morethan 5%
(probably less than 2%) as much of either oxygen or water vapor in the
atmosphere of Venus as in the atmosphere of the earth<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:42">.</del></span>"<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:42">.</ins></span>Wheninvestigated
the atmosphere of Venus using a telescopein a balloon<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:42">,</ins></span>it was alsoreported
finding a trace of water-approximately 19 µm water equivalent above the
cloud layer. The probable error of this measurement,however, wasalmost as large
as the effect observed. Interpretation of these findings was of course,
difficult, for they essentially pertain to that portion of the atmosphereabove
the clouds. We do not know how much water is beneath.Owing to the continual
presence of clouds high in the atmosphere of Venus,it is not possible to
determine the temperature of the surface by measurementsof radiation of
wavelength near the maximum on the black body emission curve.The best estimate
comes from measures at cm wavelengths far to the long wavelength side of the
black body maximum. The temperatures reported for thesurface of Venus are in
excess of 3000°C, which is, of course, far too hot to permit terrestrial life
or complex organic substances to exist. This high temperatureseems acceptable
to most astronomers. They point to the effectiveness of carbon dioxide and
cloud cover in conserving heat in a way often called a greenhouse effect.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Solar radiation is absorbed at the surface, which
re-emits radiation of longer wavelength, mainly in the infrared. The blanketing
atmosphere is relatively opaque to this radiation. Hence heat is conserved. A
similar greenhouse effect is activeon earth where the carbon dioxide content is
only 2% that of Venus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">We turn then to Mars, which has always been
regarded as the likeliest candidate for extra-terrestrial life. Mars has an
atmosphere and, though on the average is colder than earth, has temperatures
which at least part of the time are suitable for life. Temperatures at the
equator rise to 350<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:45">°</ins></span>C during the day time. At night<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:45">,</ins></span>
theyfall far<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:45">'</del></span> below freezing since there is
practically no cloud cover and greenhouse effect. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11pt;">The atmosphere is relatively very thin and the
surface is visible most of the time. The quantity of gas in the atmosphere was
determined most accurately by Dollfus,who measured the light reflected by the
planet and determined what part was reflected from the surface and what part
was due to Rayleigh scattering in the gas [28].The value which is generally
accepted is a pressure of 85 millibars at ground level.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">What does this atmosphere consist of? Our knowledge
is incomplete. Kuiper 6 showed that the gas is carbon dioxide and nitrogen[29].
Some of it is doubtless A40,arising out of decay of K40. The remainder is
generally assumed to be largelynitrogen, although there is no direct evidence
for its presence. There is disagreement concerning a haze in the atmosphere of
Mars which leads to absorption that increases rapidly at wavelengths below 4500 A.
At least threeexplanations have been advanced. Kuiper"7 states that the
haze is due to verysmallice crystals. Opiki8 attributes the absorption to
carbon-containing particulatematter. Another explanation, advanced by Kiessis
that the absorption is due to nitrogen. Mars is smaller than earth and
correspondingly gases can escape far more readily.Only hydrogen and helium can
leave earth, but it has been calculated that even atomic oxygen can escape from
Mars10 It would be a most remarkable circumstance if we were to be especially favored
with the privilege of being around to witness escape of the last traces of
original water from Mars. It has been suggested that water could be supplied by
planetary out gassing. At best<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T18:50">,</ins></span> such asupply would be then sporadic.
Volcanic activity on Mars had been also reported.In any event, the present
moisture content of the Martian atmosphere is somewhat adequate to permit life as
we know it to grow and reproduce.There is evidence, though not very convincing,
of life on Mars. The well-known seasonal pattern of color variation has often
been interpreted as of biologicorigin. Following dust storms, earlier color
reappears. Sintonhas measuredthe infrared spectra of light reflected from Mars
and suggested that his spectraindicate the presence of organic molecules for
development of life [30]. The effects observed are smallhowever, Abelsonconsidered
that they can also be explained as due to nitrogen oxides [31]. If these oxides
are present in substantial amounts at the surface of Marsthey would constitute
a toxic hazard to any terrestrial life which might reach Mars.If life actually
would exists on Mars it cannot be like any terrestrial form of life because of
the relative absence of water. The crucial difficulty is the inability of life
to function in a non-fluid state. If there is life, special arrangements to
provide fluidity must be available, e.g. organic liquids of low vapor pressure.
Such a form of life would be quite different from anything we know and would
probably be destroyed in any standard culture medium.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">Samples those are likely to contain evidence of past life on Mars must had been deposited when and where enviro</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">nments exhibited habitable conditions. Mars analog sites provide the opportunity to study how life could have exploited such habitable conditions. Acidic iron- and sulfur-rich streams are good geo chemical analogues for the late Noachian and early Hesperian, periods of martian history where habitable conditions were widespread known. Past life on Mars would have left behind fossilized microbial organic remains. These are often-sought diagnostic evidence, but they must be shielded from the harsh radiation flux at the martian surface and its deleterious effect on organic matter. One mechanism that promotes such preservation is burial, which raises questions about how organic bio markers are influenced by the post burial effects of diagenesis. When investigated the kinetics of organic degradation in the subsurface of Mars. Natural mixtures of acidic iron- and sulfur-rich stream sediments and their associated microbial populations and remains were subjected to hydrous pyrolysis, which simulated the increased temperatures and pressures of burial alongside any promoted organic/mineral interactions. Calculations were made to extrapolate the observed changes over martian history. </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">Our authors experiments indicate that low carbon contents, high water-to-rock ratios, and the presence of iron-rich minerals combine to provide unfavorable conditions for the preservation of soluble organic matter over the billions of years necessary to produce present-day organic records of late Noachian and early Hesperian life on Mars. Successful sample selection strategies must therefore consider the pre-, syn-, and postburial histories of sedimentary records on Mars and the balance between the production of biomass and the long-term preservation of organic bio markers over geological time. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">Success in the search for evidence of life on Mars depends on selecting the appropriate samples for investigation. The late Noachian and early Hesperian period of martian history provide samples of a time when conditions were habitable and when any martian life would have had a relatively lengthy opportunity to originate and proliferate </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">. During the Hesperian period of Mars' history, acidic, sulfur-rich conditions led to the regional deposition of abundant sulfate minerals, such as gypsum (CaSO</span><span style="background-color: white; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-size: 10.5px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">4</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">·2H</span><span style="background-color: white; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-size: 10.5px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">O) and jarosite (KFe</span><span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-size: 10.5px; line-height: 0; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">3+</span><span style="background-color: white; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-size: 10.5px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">3</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">(OH)</span><span style="background-color: white; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-size: 10.5px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">6</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">(SO</span><span style="background-color: white; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-size: 10.5px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">4</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">)</span><span style="background-color: white; bottom: -0.25em; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-size: 10.5px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">), in aqueous conditions </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">. Although the longevity of these environments is uncertain, they may have been capable of supporting extremophilic organisms that produced organic remains that, when entombed in a mineral matrix, could represent fossil organic bio markers in the martian rock record. For this reason, there has been significant interest in the ability of jarosite, or minerals associated with jarosite, to preserve organic matter </span> <span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">Recent work by<a href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B28"> Jonathon Tan and by Mark a saphton</a> had shown that lipids are concentrated in iron oxyhydroxides (such as goethite) associated with acid sulfate environments and can preserve fatty acid profiles beyond the initial stages of diagenesis ( Jonathon Tan </span><i style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px; text-align: start;">et al.</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B94" id="B94R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600; text-align: start; text-decoration-line: none;">2018</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">). The iron oxides and oxyhydroxides present in these environments have also been found to be significantly more amenable to thermal extraction techniques (</span><i style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px; text-align: start;">e.g.</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-size: 14px;">, pyrolysis) used to search for organic matter when compared with minerals that release oxygen upon heating, such as sulfates (such as jarosite) and perchlorates (</span></span><a href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B28" style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">Jonathon Tan and by Mark a saphton</a> <span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">). Consequently, iron oxides and oxyhydroxides associated with sulfur stream environments should be considered targets of astrobiological interest. Little is known, however, about how organic biomarkers might be degraded by reactions involving both the organic and inorganic constituents of these acidic iron- and sulfur-rich stream samples, especially following burial where temperature and pressure are elevated for extended periods of time. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">If life arose on Mars at the same time as Earth, when conditions on both planets were relatively similar, its remains would need to survive billions of years to be detectable in the present day. Although the martian ultraviolet (UV) flux may have been comparable with early Earth and hence not an inhibitor of the evolution of early life (</span><a href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B28" style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">Jonathon Tan and by Mark a saphton</a> <span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">), the cumulative effects of UV radiation over martian history would likely have destroyed all traces of surface organic matter, or at the very least have rendered organic biomarkers indistinguishable from abiotic carbon sources</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">. Radiation raises some concerns for iron-rich environments, as iron may promote the destruction of organic matter in Mars' present-day radiation environment </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">. Thus, to avoid the deleterious effects of UV radiation, rocks containing organic biomarkers would need to have been rapidly transported to the subsurface where further exposure to the effects of UV would be avoided </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">. Buried surfaces can be accessed in the present day by using a drill as planned in the forthcoming ExoMars (2020) mission (Vago </span><i style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">et al.</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B101" id="B101R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600;">2016</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">), or by searching for surfaces that have only relatively recently been exhumed such as near escarpments </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;"> or sites of impact ejection </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">Burial on Mars is relatively rare owing to a lack of plate tectonics, but does occur mostly following continuous sedimentation and subsequent compaction, as observed in Gale Crater </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">. The sediments observed at Yellow knife Bay, for example, were deeply buried and exhumed before 3.3 to 3.2 Ga, and analysis of the hydraulic fracturing within the mud stones of this unit shows a minimum burial depth of 1.2 km </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">. Peak burial temperatures at such depths would depend on the geothermal gradient, which has changed throughout Mars' geological history. Present-day estimates range from 6.4 to 10.6 K/km (Hoffman, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B34" id="B34R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600;">2001</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">), while modeling of the diagenetic history of Gale Crater suggests a time-dependent variable geothermal gradient, with peak paleotemperatures for sedimentary rocks at Gale Crater ranging from 80°C to 225°C, depending on factors such as surface temperature, overburden thickness, thermal conductivity, and heat flow</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">. Consequently, organic biomarkers that have been buried will have been subjected to other potentially degrading mechanisms, and must have been able to survive elevated temperatures, pressures, and degradative reactions involving the interaction of minerals with organic matter.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">To achieve a full appreciation of how organic biomarkers could be preserved on Mars, it is important to understand how these materials are influenced by the post burial effects of diagenesis, especially with regard to the interactions between organic matter and the mineral matrices present in these distinct martian geochemical environments. Previous studies of Mars-relevant sulfur-rich analogues examined surface conditions where extant biomass was still present. The ability of organic matter hosted in Mars analog settings to survive the initial stages of diagenesis and subsequent burial and thermal maturation has not been previously addressed (</span><i style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">e.g.</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">, Fernández-Remolar, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B25" id="B25R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600;">2003</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">; Benison and Bowen, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B3" id="B3R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600;">2006</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">; Parenteau </span><i style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">et al.</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B71" id="B71R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600;">2014</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">; Williams </span><i style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">et al.</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B108" id="B108R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600;">2015</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">; Tan </span><i style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">et al.</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B94" id="B94R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600;">2018</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">)</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">Hydrous pyrolysis is a well-known technique used to artificially mature organic matter-rich samples in the laboratory </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">, but has also been used to simulate the effects of diagenesis on certain biomarkers (</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;"> Jaeschke </span><i style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">et al.</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B37" id="B37R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600;">2008</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">). Hydrous pyrolysis involves heating a sample containing both sediment and organic matter in a closed system in the presence of an inert atmosphere and deoxygenated water at subcritical temperatures for 72 h </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">. Historically, hydrous pyrolysis has been used to study rocks with a high total organic carbon (TOC) content, with diagenesis being studied at temperatures between 160°C and 280°C (Eglinton and Douglas, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B18" id="B18R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600;">1988</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">; Peters </span><i style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">et al.</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B72" id="B72R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600;">1990</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">; Koopmans </span><i style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">et al.</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B49" id="B49R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600;">1995</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">) and catagenesis being investigated between 300°C and 365°C (Lewan </span><i style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">et al.</i><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">, </span><a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B57" id="B57R" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: 600;">1979</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 14px;">). Iron-rich rocks with low TOC, such as those found in Mars analog environments, have thus not been widely investigated by using this method. In this study, microbial mat materials hosted in two mineralogically distinct Mars-relevant acidic iron- and sulfur-rich stream environments were artificially matured with hydrous pyrolysis to investigate the effects of thermal diagenesis and associated mineral matrix-assisted reactions on the preservation of organic matter within these sa </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292929; font-family: Roboto, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: start;">018</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #292b2c; font-family: Roboto, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 0.875rem; text-align: start;">).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">In contrast, an important caveat of these models is that they only predict the amount of detectable solvent-extractable organic matter remaining in a sample after a certain period. As revealed in the literature (Eigenbrode <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">et al.</i>, <a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B21" id="B21R" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">2018</a>), it is known that macromolecular organic matter can survive the radiative and diagenetic conditions of martian geological history (although it is important to note that the age of this material is not yet known). Macromolecular organic matter is not solvent extractable and thus was not considered by these sets of models. The model also does not provide insights into whether the remaining organic matter can be distinguished from sources of abiotic carbon, such as meteoritic material (Chyba and Sagan, <a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B11" id="B11R" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">1992</a>; Summons <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">et al.</i>, <a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B92" id="B92R" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">2008</a>; Sephton, <a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B81" id="B81R" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">2012</a>) or Fischer/Tropsch-type (FTT) reactions (McCollom and Seewald, <a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B62" id="B62R" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">2006</a>; Mißbach <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">et al.</i>, <a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B67" id="B67R" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">2018</a>). The latter is especially important, as FTT reactions are a common occurrence in hydrothermal deposits (McCollom and Seewald, <a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B63" id="B63R" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">2007</a>; Konn <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">et al.</i>, <a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B48" id="B48R" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">2015</a>) and can produce long-chain saturated fatty acids (Mißbach <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">et al.</i>, <a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B67" id="B67R" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">2018</a>). Finally, the model does not consider the effects of minerals common to the surface of Mars that are not present in our analog samples, most egregiously the presence of perchlorates in the martian regolith (Carrier and Kounaves, <a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B9" id="B9R" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">2015</a>). While we acknowledge the importance of perchlorate minerals, and the complexity of perchlorate mineral interactions with organic matter (Góbi <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">et al.</i>, <a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B29" id="B29R" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">2017</a>; Fornaro <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">et al.</i>, <a class="tab-link" data-tab="pane-pcw-references" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2046?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=AST+FP+Feb+3+2020&d=2%2F3%2F2020&mcid=1868274153&#B26" id="B26R" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #892035; cursor: pointer; font-weight: 600; text-decoration-line: none;">2018</a>), postulating how it may affect the kinetics of organic matter preservation in the studied environments is beyond the scope of this study.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The late Noachian and early Hesperian represented habitable conditions on Mars contemporaneous with the emergence of life on Earth. We can develop our suite of life detection skills by examining analog sites on Earth that are chemically and possibly biologically similar to the late Noachian and early Hesperian of Mars. Acid iron- and sulfur-rich streams and the microbial communities hosted within these environments provide one such analog site. Rocks representing the late Noachian and early Hesperian of Mars are old and any organic matter within would have been stored for billions of years. Samples that are likely to contain evidence of past life on Mars must exhibit conditions that promote the preservation of organic biomarkers over geological time.<span style="font-size: 0.875rem;">Artificial maturation techniques can recreate the effects of geological storage on Mars in Earth laboratories and allow us to draw conclusions about the behavior of organic biomarkers in response to diagenesis in these distinct geochemical environments. Fatty acids are found to be persistent organic biomarkers, but complex organic structures are susceptible to degradation. During maturation, thiophenes are released at low temperatures and fatty acids are liberated from adsorption sites. Low carbon contents, high water-to-rock ratios, and the presence of iron-rich clay minerals are all conditions that decrease the preservation of organic biomarkers in iron- and sulfur-rich stream environments. Kinetic modeling derived from quantitative hydrous pyrolysis, however, suggests that these conditions are applicable only on a 100 kA timescale, after which all solvent-extractable organic matter is expected to be lost.The analysis of kinetic parameters predicts that regardless of the carbon content, water availability, and the presence of clay minerals, saturated fatty acids are not expected to be detectable by wet chemistry techniques following postburial diagenesis. Sample selection on future Mars missions should appreciate that some samples, which reflect habitable conditions on Mars, can inhibit the preservation of martian organic matter when exposed to geological storage over billions of years. Sample selection strategies must therefore consider the pre-, syn-, and postburial histories of habitable conditions on Mars and the balance between the production of biomass and the long-term preservation of organic biomarkers over geological time</span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">DNA/RNA Viruses asData
Rich Signals</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Nature
has already invented neatly packaged data-rich nano machines we call them
viruses. A typical virus contains thousands of bits of information encoded in
either RNA or DNA enough for a decent message. So why not engineer trillions of
viruses, package them in pea-sized microprobes and spew them around the galaxy?
Each virus would convey a message for any future intelligent life on the
destination planet, the space-age equivalent of a message in a bottle. The
beauty of the scheme is that the message can be replicated <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ad infinitum</i> should it encounter life on a destination planet, by
the simple expedient of programming the viruses to “infect” any DNA-based cells
with which they come into contact. The virus inserts its message into the
genetic material of the host organism’s germ cells (that is what so-called
endogenous retroviruses do), and the cell obligingly replicates it and passes
the message on to all future generations. In this way the virus would spread
like wildfire through the host ecosystem, its information preserved for
millions of years until some future Craig Venter begins sequencing genomes and
stumbles across the message</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">soil is
between 98.91 and 99.83% but not at 98.90%, although at this lower humidity<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:25">,</ins></span>
most plants remain alive.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;">How
the Aliens Will Look Like in Other Star’s Worlds exo Planets in Habitable Zones
(Figure 3) <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;">Let us to assume that our own humanoid
form is the generic result of an ideal set of criteria by the creator which
hold true universally? Perhaps all biologic life strives for carbon-based,
oxygen-burning chemistry, and to see the planet by the visible light spectrum. There
is no reason these laws should be very much different on other planets of other
stars, if the universe is composed of the same small number of elements, which
seems to be the case.So the aliens will probably have a close/similar
appearance to humans or animals or reptiles in the earth, if they are found to
be living in an environment and climate similar to ours but may appear as
monster based on gravity of that planet. Aliens may have the same DNA as we do
here on earth. There are several types of nucleic acids that might be useful
for genetic storage and transfer of information; tRNA, mRNA, aDNA, zDNA, even
PNA. Three and four stranded varieties sometimes occur.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_96" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" style="height: 128.25pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 201.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata></v:shape></span></i><b><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;"><o:p></o:p></span></sup></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;">Fig. 3:
</span></i></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;">An Exoplanet
in Other Solar System in Habitable Zone</span></i><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;">It is possible that the variety which
life on earth utilizes may predominate on many planets; it might be the most
suitable type for living creatures and will be selected by evolution on a
biochemical level. Even if this is true (and I donot think we can be sure yet)
there are two mirror-image forms of DNA which are possible; we never encounter
the mirror image L-DNA in nature as far as I know (as opposed to zDNA, which is
completely different in form) but it could occur on other worlds. Alien life
might not have DNA like earthlings<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:34">.</ins></span> Prof Hawking warned: "Watch out
if you would meet an alien. You could be infected with a disease with which you
have no resistance<b><sup>.</sup></b><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">[4]"<b><sup><o:p></o:p></sup></b></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 104%;">The origin of <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">all</span>
life in this planet<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:36">,</ins></span> the earth<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:36">,</ins></span> was at first RNA
world and then DNA world and then first single cell then multi-cellular complex
life and so on and all life has the same depth of evolution .Taking two of the
points shown on the Figure 3, those for fish and mammals which shared a
common ancestor around 500 million years ago; of what relevance to the origin
of life has been the faster development of non-redundant genes in the lineage
leading to mammals? Use of the hypothesized time of ‘origin’ of Eukaryotes,
occurred around 2 billion years(bya) is particularly unfortunate. Firstly, we
do not have any certainty about the timing of the origin of eukaryotes. Comparative
genomic analyses (Figure 4)concluded that the first earthly multi-cellular
eukaryote<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:38">,</del></span>
did evolve by 2.7<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:38"> </ins></span>bya, but the first
proto-eukaryotes may have evolved around 4 bya. There are also
microfossils dated to 3.8 bya which have been interpreted as simplified
eukaryotes.Many others had cited this evidence to argue that eukaryotes did not
at all evolve on earth, but also have an ancestry which predates the origins of
this planetSecondly, the development of eukaryotes was arguably the greatest
leap in evolution since the origin of the first self-replicating cell;
certainly not within the gradualism camp since it resulted from a series of
rare cell-fusions of prokaryotic cells. Once again, we might ask of what
relevance to the timing of the origin of life was this serendipitous event? It
is wrong to place the origin of the prokaryotic cell at 3.5 Gigayears ago.
Although we have evidence of the <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">existence</span>
of prokaryotes at that time we also have evidence that their phylogeny, on earth,
runs much deeper from 3.<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:39">8 </ins></span>bya. Prokaryotic life appeared
on earth shortly after life became possible on this planet (Joseph and Schild
2010). Ifwe accept the Sharov's (2010) contentions, they may well have existed
10 billion years ago. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In our view <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">all</span> life-forms we might find in the outer solar system <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">will</span> share the genetic codesthat may
be familiar to us. Any experimentation with alternative genetic systems in
primordial cells would have been snuffed out by the development of the RNA
world, which in turn was snuffed out (with the possible exception of some RNA
viruses) by the DNA world. The important question remaining is whether both prokaryotes
and eukaryotes are represented among these life-forms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 110%;">We authors think that many alien
intelligent species (perhaps 2 or 3% of them) would look like <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">humanoid</span> as they look, act, think and
feel amazingly like ourselves with probable some kind of appendages evolved for
manipulation, locomotion. These appendages can have evolved from any movable
body parts, including parts of the locomotors apparatus (limbs), feeding
apparatus (mouth parts like lips or mandibles), respiratory apparatus (gills or
lungs), or sensory apparatus (antennae). Earthlike worlds with slightly more
gravity would tend to produce centauroids. The nearest centauroid might look
like the upper part of a gorilla transplanted on the body of a donkey, for
example. And its two eyes might be above each other, rather than side by side.
Earthlike worlds with slightly less gravity would tend to produce flying
aliens. Some might look like bats, others like octopoi with a balloon-like
body, yet others like living monoplanes, with their manipulative extremities
tucked away inside their mouths. In a dense atmosphere a life form might look
like a living umbrella, which keeps a loft by opening and closing itself.
Earthlike worlds with vast tracts of level ground might have inhabitants which
look like giant wheels. The outside of the wheel might be covered with tiny
mouths used for grazing. Ant like creatures and some reptile like, some are giants
larger than elephant also, may be possible, and some like octopus also, aliens
are aliens even we are aliens for them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 110%; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 110%; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 110%;">The intelligent civilized life in those
planets will probably be <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">humanoid</span>
as a technical term, which I want to denote having a bilateral body plan with a
trunk, two legs, two arms and a head with three eyes. Humanoid species would
not have always to look anything like human beings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 110%; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 110%; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 110%; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 110%;">A bilateral symmetrical body plan may
also have possible subdivisions of their body plans as per mathematical laws
and if one observes the life around us in the planet earth evolved, as I had
observed.<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:43"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
</div>
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<o:p></o:p><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="Section5">
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_3" o:borderbottomcolor="black" o:borderleftcolor="black" o:borderrightcolor="black" o:bordertopcolor="black" o:spid="_x0000_i1026" style="height: 185.25pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 6in;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata cropbottom="-2407f" cropleft="-1479f" cropright="-1593f" croptop="-1605f" o:title="" src="file:///C:\Users\CT9AC1~1.M\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image004.png">
<w:bordertop type="single" width="4">
<w:borderleft type="single" width="4">
<w:borderbottom type="single" width="4">
<w:borderright type="single" width="4">
</w:borderright></w:borderbottom></w:borderleft></w:bordertop></v:imagedata></v:shape></span></i><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Fig. 4:</span></i></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">
Comparative Genomic Analyses Concluded that the First Earthly Multi Cellular
Eukaryote, did Evolve by 2.7 bya, but the First Proto-Eukaryotes may have Evolved
around 4 bya.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span>
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<div class="Section6">
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Symmetry</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03"><o:p></o:p></ins></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">A: No
discernable symmetry (a bush, an amoeba)<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03"><br /></del></span></span></div>
</div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">B1:
Spiral symmetry (certain snails)<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">B2:
Helical symmetry (other snails)<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C2: <b>Bilateral
Symmetry (most vertebrates</b>)<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
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<!--[endif]--><br />
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C3:
Threefold cylindrical symmetry<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C4:
Fourfold cylindrical symmetry<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03">,</ins></span><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><o:p></o:p></ins></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:03"><br /></del></span></span></div>
C5: Fivefold cylindrical symmetry (like a starfish)<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span><br />
<br /><!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<!--[endif]--><br />
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">CN:
N-fold cylindrical symmetry<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04">;<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Coo:
Complete cylindrical symmetry (like a jellyfish or a wheel)<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04">,</ins></span><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
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<!--[endif]--><br />
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">D:
Rectangular symmetry (like a two-headed snake or amphisbaena)<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><br /></del></span></span></div>
E1: Tetrahedral symmetry<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><br /></del></span><br />
<br /><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">E2:
Cubical/octahedral symmetry<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">E3: Dodecahedral/icosahedral
symmetry<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Eoo:
Spherical symmetry<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04">.</ins></span><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><o:p></o:p></del></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C2:
Bilateral Symmetry with Appendages</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
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<!--[endif]--><br />
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:04"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C2.0:
No appendages (like a snake)<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:05"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:05">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C2.1:
One pair of appendages<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:05"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:05">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C2.2:
<b>Two Pairs of Appendages (like most mammals hands and feet)</b><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:05"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
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<!--[endif]--><br />
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:05"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C2.3:
Three pairs of appendages (like a centaur)<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:05"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:05">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C2.4:
Four pairs of appendages (like a spider)<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:05"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:05">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C2.5:
Five pairs of appendages (like a butterfly)<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:05"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:05">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C2.N:
N pairs of appendages<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:06"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:06">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C2.V:
Variable (large) number of pairs of appendages<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:48">.</ins></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">B2.2:
Bilateral Symmetry: Two Pairs of Appendages</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:06"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
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<!--[endif]--><br />
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:06"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">B2.2.H:
<b>With a head on one end<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:48">,</ins></span></b><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:06"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<!--[endif]--><br />
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:06"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">B2.2.T:
With a tail on one end<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:48">,</ins></span><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:06"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<!--[endif]--><br />
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:06"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">B2.2.B:
With a head on one end and a tail on the other end<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:48">,</ins></span><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:06"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<!--[endif]--><br />
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:06"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">(Absence
of both head and tail would make the symmetry rectangular)<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:48">.</ins></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Kind
of Appendage<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:48">:</del></span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:06"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<!--[endif]--><br />
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:06"><o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">T1:
Tentacle<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:48"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:48">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">T2(1,1):
Tentacle, which divides into two sub-tentacles<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:48"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:48">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">T3(2(1,1)1,1):
Tentacle which divides into three sub-tentacles, one of which divides into two
sub-sub-tentacles, none of which divide any further<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:49"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:49">,<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">A:
One rigid part<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:49"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:49">.<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">B: <b>Two
rigid parts</b><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:49"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:49">.<o:p></o:p></ins></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">B2(A2(A1,T1),B1)
<b>Two rigid parts, the last one sprouting two sub-appendages, the first of
which has one rigid part, sprouting yet another rigid part and a tentacle, the
second of which has two rigid parts, sprouting nothing further</b>.<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:49"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C:
Three rigid parts<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:49"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /></del></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">C5(B1,C1,C1,C1,C1)
Three rigid parts, the last one sprouting five sub-appendages, one of which has
two rigid parts, the other four having three, none of these subdividing any
further.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:01"><br /></del></span></span></div>
<b>Description of the Humanoid Body Plan:</b><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T20:00"><br /></del></span><br />
<br />C2.2.H; 2B2(C1,A4(C1,C1,C1,C1)); 2C5(B1,C1,C1,C1,C1)<b><o:p></o:p></b><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">So<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:49">,</ins></span>any
body structural scheme starting with C2.2.H or C2.2.B will be consideredas
humanoid, unless one or both pairs of appendages are wings or fins.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Our
(authors here) expectation is that of all intelligent species<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:50">,</ins></span>
a large partin other worlds (perhaps even more than 50%)<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:50">,</ins></span> will have body
schemes starting with C2, and of these the majority will be C2.2 (and these
mostly humanoid) or C2.3 (and these mostly centauroid or angeloid).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Why we
have considered the bilateral symmetry? The advantage of bilateral
symmetrybefore us is thatthat there is a definitive front and back, this allows
the organism to focus its limited senses in a certain direction defined as
"front". If you look at squid and octopi, they actually technically <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">are</span> bilaterally symmetrical. They
have two eyes, an ink gland, a beak, a water jet intake and outlet, and in the
case of squid a pair of feeding tentacles. Despite their eight radially
symmetrical tentacles<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:50">,</ins></span> these paired or singular structures
give a definitive bilateralness to their structure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
most serious limitation for any intelligent life form is however the
developmentnervous system or equivalent thereof for signaling. All life-forms
on earth use ionic gradients as a signaling mechanism. This is the basis of the
animal nervous system, but is also critical to all other life-forms on earth. I
will assume that animals on another world use ionic gradients as the primary
signaling mechanism as well. Chemical transport is far too slow for a mobile
organism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">What
will be their Food Habit?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">All
the smartest animals on earth are either carnivores or omnivores, since it is a
lot more difficult for something that eats things that can run away to survive
than something that simply needs to run away. This is because a given level in
the food chain must have 1/10th the biomass of the previous level. The chances
for a herbivore are a lot better than those of a carnivore. Similarly, pure scavengers
probably would not need that high of intelligence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; text-transform: uppercase;">Conclusionsand <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Possibility of life in other planets of our own solar system</span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">There
may be no little green men living in our solar system. However, there are
plenty of places where more primitive life might be able to survive. Many
astronomers now believe that life has a good chance of evolving wherever the
conditions are right. So our solar system could be teeming with living creatures<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:53">.</ins></span>The
main candidates in the solar system to harbor life are Mars, Europa and Titan
and our moon with </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">tardigrades left with
from earth.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">
Europa is an icy moon that revolves around Jupiter<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:54">.</ins></span> The temperature
on the surface is a chilly ‑170ºC. But this inhospitable planet may harbor an
underground ocean of liquid water, one of the essential ingredients for life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">ACKNOWLEDGEMENT</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">This article<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:54">,</ins></span></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Hello! Are we
alone? If you're like me, you may want to know me<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:54">,</ins></span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">is all authors<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T19:55">’</ins></span> tribute to
diseased Late Mr. Bholanath Bhattacharya(1926‑2009) and Late Mrs<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:58">.</ins></span>Bani
Bhattacharya(1935<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:57">-</del></span><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:57">‑</ins></span>2006<span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:57">)- </del></span><span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:57">), </ins></span>Diseased
parents of Professor Dr<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:58">.</ins></span>PranabKumar Bhattacharya of 7/51
Purbapalli, Po-Sodepur, 24 Parganas(North), Kolkata-110, West Bengal-India, who
believed presence of life in other forms in other worlds in galaxies and in
panspermia theory and to his all maternal uncles aunts late Mr.
AjitChakraborty, Late Mrs<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:58">.</ins></span>SudharaniChakraborty, Late Mr<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:58">.</ins></span>AbaniChakraborty,
late Mrs<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:58">.</ins></span>RebekaChakraborty,
late Dr<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:58">.</ins></span>AsitChakraborty
and Mr<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:58">.</ins></span>BinayChakrabortyand
Mrs<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:58">.</ins></span>AparnaChakrabortyMukherjee
of CG block Salt lake Kolkata<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2019-12-31T19:59">.</ins></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">REFERENCES<span class="msoIns"><ins cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:06"><o:p></o:p></ins></span></span></b></div>
<h1 style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">John Gribbin.Is Anyone Out There? NASA Researchers
have started to search the Galaxy for Signs of Intelligent Life. What Sort of
Life do they Hope to Find<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">? <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">New Scientist</i>. 25 May 1991; Magazine
issue 1770.<o:p></o:p></span></span></h1>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:18"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></del></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span class="msoDel"><del cite="mailto:DELL" datetime="2020-01-03T13:18"><o:p> </o:p></del></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Verdana;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Rupak Bhattacharya,
Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya, Upasana Bhattacharya, Ritwik Bhattacharya, Rupsa
Bhattacharya, Dalia Mukherjee, Ayshi Mukherjee, Debasis Mukherjee.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Super-Earths (Exo-planets): How Much Probability of
Colonization of Life is There?<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal of
Aerospace Engineering & Technology (JoAET)</i>, STM Journal Group.2019; </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">9(1<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">): 33‑39p<b>.</b></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">3.</span></span><span style="font-family: times new roman; font-size: xx-small;"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Pranab Kumar
Bhattacharya <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al</i>. Rafael Austin and
Thread Answer. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">http://www.badastronomy.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=4570&sid=46ce3673996d676dc0bdae2e16d1c931.
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">www.unipathos.com<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">HawkingStephen
W. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Life in the Universe.</i> FRS in his
website, accessed by P. K. Bhattacharya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><br />
<!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Rupak Bhattacharya, Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya Upasana Bhattacharya,
Ritwik Bhattacharya, Rupsa Bhattacharya, Dalia Mukherjee, Ayshi Mukherjee,
Debasis Mukherjee. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Schrödinger
Cat's Experiment's Interpretation andParallel Universe or Multiple Universes. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Research & Reviews: Journal of Space
Science & Technology (RRJoSST)</i>, STM Journal Group. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">2016; 5(1): 35‑52p. <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Cronin
JR, Cooper GW, Pizzarello S. Characteristics and Formation of Amino Acids and
Hydroxy Acids of the Murchison Meteorite. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Adv
Space Res</i>. 1995; 15(3): 91–97p.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Cronin
JR, Pizzarello S. Enantiomeric Excesses in Meteoritic Amino Acids. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Science.</i> 1997; 275(5302): 951–955p.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Pizzarello
S, Cronin JR. Non-Racemic Amino Acids in the Murray and Murchison Meteorites. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">GeochimCosmochimActa</i>. 2000; 64(2):
329–338p.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Bernstein
MP, Dworkin JP, Sandford SA, Cooper GW, Allamandola LJ. Racemic Amino Acids
from the Ultraviolet Photolysis of Interstellar Ice Analogues. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nature.</i> 2002; 416(6879): 401–403p.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Muñoz
Caro GM, Meierhenrich UJ, Schutte WA, Barbier B, Arcones Segovia A, Rosenbauer
H, Thiemann WH, Brack A, Greenberg JM. Amino Acids from Ultraviolet Irradiation
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">31.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Abelson Philip H. Extra-Terrestrial Life. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Proc Nat ScienceUSA Geophysics</i>. 1961; 47(4):
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">]
Pranab. Detecting Alien Radio-TV signals.htm Thread at BAD Astronomy &Universe
Today www.bautforum.com <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Detecting Alien Radio/TV Signals? </span><span lang="EN-US">http://cosmoquest.org/forum/showthread.php?100276-Detecting-alien-radio-TV-signals&p=1676453#post1676453</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-51293575756401813322019-11-18T00:32:00.005-08:002022-08-06T01:50:20.054-07:00Correlation of FNAC lymph node cytology with CD4 count in HIV seropositive adults Annals of Tropical Medicine & Public Health SP2002-19<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b><a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">Sumana et al (2019): FNAC lymph node in HIV+ adults May 2019 vol. 19 page 32-38 ©Annals of Tropical Medicine & Public Health SP2002-19 </a></b><br />
<a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog"> Correlation of FNAC lymph node cytology with CD4 count in HIV seropositive adults</a><br />
<a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">”
Mukherjee Sumana1
, Mukhopadhyay Keya1
, Bhattacharya Pranab1</a><br />
<a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog"> 1. Department of Pathology, School Of Tropical Medicine, Kolkata</a><br />
<a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog"> Corresponding Author:Sumana Mukherjee, BH-62, Sector-2, Salt Lake, KolkataPhone numbers +919830945575E-mail: doctor.sumana@gmail.com</a><br />
<b><a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">Abstract: </a></b><br />
<a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">Context: </a><br />
<a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">Lymphoid tissues are common targets of HIV infection.FNAC is the initial investigation of choice inthese cases.Aims: To evaluate the usefulness of FNAC in HIV positive lymphadenopathy in our center..Methods and Material: FNAC was performed in 153 HIVpositive patients presenting with lymphadenopathy.Smears were stained with Giemsa, ZN and PAS/Grocotts/PAP according to cytological findings.Statistical analysis: The data was analysed using the T TestResults: Tuberculous lymphadenitis was the most common diagnosis (44%).Smear positivity was found in 29%cases. Necrotizing granulomas and smear positivity was significantly higher in cases with CD4 count<200.Reactive hyperplasia was significantly higher in the CD4> 200 category.Conclusions: FNAC is very useful and gives specific diagnosis in most cases of HIV lymphadenopathy. LowerCD4 count significantly increases the smear positivity for AFB.Key-words: FNAC, lymph node, HIV, CD4 count</a><br />
<a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">How to cite this article: Sumana M, Keya M, Pranab B (2019): Correlation of FNAC lymph node cytologywith CD4 count in HIV seropositive adults, Ann Trop Med & Pub Health-Special issue; 19: 2002-19</a>.<br />
<b> <a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">Key Messages:</a></b><br />
FNAC should be the chosen diagnostic method in HIV lymphadenopathy
because it avoids unnecessary biopsy, saves time, is cost effective, safer for the operator and
has yields mostly specific diagnosis.<br />
<a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog"> <b>Introduction:</b></a><br />
Lymphoid tissues are commonly targeted in HIV infections [1]. HIV positive individuals thus commonly present
with enlarged lymph nodes. The degree of lymphadenopathy may range from progressive generalized to
transient.The commonest infection is tuberculosis and extra pulmonary involvement is common [2]. Occurrence
of extra pulmonary tuberculosis has increased specially in those who are severely immunodeficient [3]
.
FNAC is the initial investigation of choice in these cases. Though FNAC may not clearly demarcate all
pathologies, it is useful in diagnosis of specific infections and involves lesser risk to the performer than biopsies
[4]
.
We tried to note the FNAC findings of all HIV positive patients sent to our department with lymphadenopathy
and corelated it with CD4 counts. We aim to evaluate the usefulness of FNAC in HIV positive
lymphadenopathy in our center
.<br />
<b><a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">Materials and Methods</a>: </b><br />
Subjects: This is a cross sectional observational study of HIV infected subjects diagnosed in an ICTC unit in a
tertiary medical center. FNAC was performed on patients presenting with lymphadenopathy.
Sample size: 153 HIV positive adults with lymphadenopathy.
Inclusion criteria: Subjects above 18 years, seropositive for HIV, lymph node size at least 1 cm.
Exclusion criteria: Retroperitoneal or non-palpable nodes, inadequate material.
Data collection: Data collected included age, sex, site of lymph node enlargement, whether on ART therapy,
clinical examination of nodes, CD4 cell count by flow cytometry and cytological features. All the smears from
the aspirates were stained with Giemsa stain and ZN stain. PAS / Grocotts / PAP stains and culture were used
depending on cytological findings.
The following categories were used to record cytological data. The groups were (1) reactive hyperplasia, (2)
necrotizing granulomatous with or without AFB, (3) necrotizing only with or without AFB, (4) other specific
diagnosis like histoplasma, Cryptococcus, suspected lymphoma or metastasis, (5) inconclusive.
Statistical analysis: The data was analysed using the T test. P-values were calculated. A p-value of < 0.005 was
considered significant.<br />
<a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog"> <b>Results:</b> </a><br />
<br />
There were 108 males (70.5%) and 45 females (29.5%). The age range was 20 to 58 years. The commonest site
was cervical (40%) followed by axillary (25%) and inguinal (5%). Some patients (30%) presented with multiple
site involvement, commonly cervical and axillary. Most nodes (55%) were discrete, non-tender. Matted nodes
constituted 25% cases, while abscess or sinus formation was seen in 20% cases (Table 1). 112 cases were onART, while 41 were ART naïveReactive hyperplasia accounted for 35% of diagnosis. There were 29% cases positive for AFB (figure 1). Only
necrotizing pattern (figure 2) were noticed in 35% cases among the AFB positiveswhile most smear positives
showed necrotizing granulomas (figure 3). Necrotizing granulomatous comprised 36%. Tuberculosis was
diagnosed when there was AFB positivity irrespective of cytology and/or presence of caseation necrosis with
epithelioid granulomas. Tuberculosis was diagnosed in 44% cases. Fungal infection comprised of 2 cases,
proven by culture. Lymphomas comprised 3.2% cases. Out of the 5 cases of lymphoma, biopsy confirmed NHL
in 4 cases and 1 was florid reactive hyperplasia. Most lymphomas and fungal infections (figure 4) were in CD4
count < 200 group (Table 2).
The number of reactive hyperplasias was significantly higher in CD4 > 200 group (p=0.00). While necrotizing
granulomas and AFB positivity was significantly higher in CD4 < 200 group (p=0.0066). Similarly, only
necrosis with AFB was significantly higherin CD4 < 200 group. There was no significant difference among
cases with necrosis and no AFB in the 2 CD4 groups (p=0.00). Cases with granulomas but no necrosis or AFB
were considered inconclusive at FNAC. <br />
<b><a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">Discussion:</a></b><br />
<b> </b>Male predominance has been established in most studies5,6 and the higher age limit varies up to 65 years7,8,9 In
our study , however, we did not get any case above 60 years of age. Agravatet al8
showed incidence of
lymphadenopathy decreased with increasing age.
Cervical nodes were most commonin our study like Neelima et al and others 9, 10, 11 Satyanarayana et al 4 found
axillary nodes most commonly. Liatjos et al12 and Naser S et al13had categorized cytological findings in our line.
Similar to our findings, most workers found tuberculous lymphadenitis as the most common
diagnosis.1,5,8,9,11Chronic granulomatous lymphadenitis without caseous necrosis and no AFB or fungi, which we
categorized as inconclusive 6,14
on FNAC comprised 12 of our cases (7.8%) is in between the 19% recorded by
Satyanarayana et al4
and the single case reported by Neelima et al.10
CD4 count < 200 is considered advanced stage while counts 200-500 and >500 are early and intermediate
stages.15We considered two groups based on similar cut off value.
Our study corroborates with other workers 10 that fungal infections and lymphomas are common in the low CD4
categories. Kumar Guru et al 6
also found highest CD4 counts in reactive hyperplasias like our study. We found
that metastasis has also been reported by some corroborating with our findings.15 We may have missed many
opportunistic infections like viruses and toxoplasma in this cytomorphological study. Diagnostic accuracy could
be increased by using appropriate immuno fluorescence kits.<br />
<b><a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">Conclusion</a></b><br />
FNAC is very useful and gives specific diagnosis in most cases of HIV lymphadenitis. Lower CD4 count
significantly increases smear positivity for AFB and fungi and may help in considering segregation of these
patients.<br />
<a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">Source(s) of support: Nil</a><br />
<a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">Presentation at a meeting: Not Applicable</a><br />
<a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">Conflicting Interest (If present, give more details): Nil</a><br />
<b><a href="http://www.atmph-specialissues.org/cms/images/May%202019.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2RBgHHRddmgzhGtXSRnaL6bBGoRO0f3RAdR6akfY5HWirNh4_sy5vbzog">References</a></b><br />
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cases. ActaCytol. 2001; 45:589–92<br />
<br />
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Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-28148573577866313082019-05-17T01:42:00.001-07:002023-02-14T11:36:27.788-08:00Super-earths (Exo-planets): How Much Probability of Colonization of Life is There?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<h1 style="background-color: #aabbaa; color: #111111; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px auto; padding: 0.5em 0px 0.25em 134.891px;">
Journal of Aerospace Engineering & Technology (JoAET) </h1>
<b><span style="color: purple;"><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">(201</a>9</span></b><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434"><b><span style="color: purple;">-59 © STM Journals 2019. All Rights Reserved Page 30 -39</span></b></a><br />
<b><span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">Journal of Aerospace Engineering & Te</a></span></b><b><span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">chnology ISSN: 2231-038X (Online), IS</a>SN</span></b><b><span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">: 2348-7887 (Print)
Volume 9, Issue 1 </a></span></b><br />
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">www.stmjournals.com </a><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">Super-earths (Exo-planets): How Much Probability ofColonization of Life is There?</a></span><br />
<b><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434/475"><br /></a></b>
<b><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434"> Rupak Bhattacharya1, Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya2,*, Upasana Bhattacharya3,Ritwik Bhattacharya4, Rupsa Bhattacharya5, Dalia Mukherjee6, Ayshi Mukherjee7,Debasis Mukherjee8 </a></b><br />
<br />
1B.Sc (Calcutta University), M.Sc (Jadavpur University), Kolkata 110, West Bengal, India
2MBBS (Calcutta University), MD (Calcutta University), FIC Path (India), Now Professor of
Pathology (on Deputation) , Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, Kolkata, West Bengal, India;
also, Professor in Department of Pathology at Murshidabad District Medical College, Berhampore
station Road, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India
3Student, Kolkata-110, WestBengal, India
4B.com, Calcutta University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
5Student, Kolkata-110, WestBengal, India
6B.A. (Hons.), (Calcutta University), Kolkata, West Bengal, India
7Student, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
8BSc (Calcutta University), West Bengal, India<br />
<b><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">Abstract</a></span></b><br />
On January 4th, 2009 American Astronomical Society in Washington D.C, the Kepler team
announced that it had identified first new exo-planet and after that up to 2013, Kepler had
identified nearly 4034 exoplanets or Super earth outside our solar system where some chemical
conditions that the pre-biotic earth had might have prompted life, at least in form of microbes.
Scientists so far announced the lists of earth-sized 4034 exo-planets with a duration of orbit around
their stars from 6 hours to 632 days and from the list, Kepler team singled up to 20 candidates
most likely to have characteristics necessary to sustain life. Of such planets are HD 1461 (76 light
years away); GJ 1214b(40 light years away), GJ 452 b ( Which is one and half time sized in the
earth and is around 40 light years away); Gliese 581 c and another is KOI -7923.01. This last
Exoplanet is 97% of the size of our earth has an orbit period of 395 days of our earth days, likely
surrounded by a cold atmosphere. Super-earth Wolf -1061 C is however habitable planet outside
our solar system and could support also alien life. It is only 14 light years away from the earth.
Statistics suggest that our own galaxy harbors at least 100 billion such exoplanets including
planetesimals. Of the world’s found, today few closely resembles the earth. Instead, they exhibit
truly enormous diversity, varying immensely in the orbit, their size, composition and circling a
wide variety of stars including one significantly smaller than our sun. Diverse features of those
exo-planets suggested us (the authors) and also to many others that earth may not be only where
close to the pinnacle of habitability. In fact, some exo-planets are quite different from our own,
could have much higher chances and can maintain stable biosphere. Of course our planet the earth
possesses a number of properties at first seems to be ideal for evolving life, that earth revolves
around a sedate middle-aged star, that has shined steadily for billions of years, giving life plenty of
times to arose and evolved from RNA worlds to microbe worlds to prokaryotic to eukaryotics to
multicellular organism life to modern planets, reptiles mammals, human through a process called
Darwinian evolution. It has oceans of life-giving water, largely because it orbits within suns
habitable zone, life-friendly size, big enough to hold a substantial atmosphere with its gravitational
field but small enough to ensure gravity does not pull a smothering, opaque shroud of gas over the
planet earth size its rocky composition, its volcanoes also gave rise to other boosters of habitability
of life Wolf 1061 C is the closest Super-earth from our planet, only 14 light years away. But it has
more than 4 times the mass of earth and the planet sits within the habitable zone, possible for water
and life to exist. Others are in the habitable zone of cool dwarf star known as TRAPPIST -1 which
is 39 light years away from earth and the planets have a surface temperature from zero to 100
degree Celsius - the temperature, which is perfect for supporting life. Earth-sized planets those are
rocky, those are watery, NH3 has methane, and volcanoes can support the origin of life. The
amonia methane, HCN and water are an essential components for the origin of life in any planet
Super-earths (Exo-planets) Bhattacharya et al
JoAET (2019) 30-39 © STM Journals 2019. All Rights Reserved Page 31
for RNA and DNA. To develop most earliest microbes it need methane-rich oxygen-poor mud at
bottoms of river and lakes as microbes live on a diet of methane and nitrogen oxides like nitrites
and nitrates or by other pathways like photosynthesis, bacterial reduction of chlorates and
enzymatic conversion of reactive oxygen species and directly energy from methane through a
chemical process linked denitrification which releases nitrogen and oxygen from nitrogen oxides.
So life can begin in any of twenty super-earths where methane exists as free gas in the atmosphere
or in the river or as a lake or asthe ocean. In such an environment, alien microbes can use any of
the pathways to leave off carbon and energy supplied by methane. The bacteria may be called
methanotrophs.<br />
<br />
<br />
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">Keywords: Gliese 581 c, glycine RNA/DNA life, habitable zone, HCN, HD 1461, KOI -7923.01, methane, methanotrophs, Miller Urey experiment, super earh, TRAPPIST-1volcanos, water, Wolf 1061 C*</a><br />
<br />
Author for Correspondence<br />
E-mail: profpkb@yahoo.co.in<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434"> INTRODUCTION </a></b><br />
Are "Super-Earths" common around other star
systems also in our universe? Are these planets
at all habitable, particularly suitable for human
colonization? Quite possibly there are many
Super Earths. Astronomers also found a
handful of new planets around sun-like stars
beyond our sun and our galaxy [a total of
known such extrasolar planets today is
probably more than 4000.], some may be only
39 light years away, some are 14 light years
away. Astronomers have discovered hundreds
of Jupiter-like planets in our galaxy too. In a
study published in Nature journal, by a team,
led by David Charbonneau of HarvardSmithsonian Center for Astrophysics, reported
[1] a new Super-Earth - hot, watery, and only
2.68 times the size of our own world the Earth.
The planet currently bears the name GJ 1214b,
which orbits a red dwarf star (Figure 1),
approximately 40 light-years from our Earth,
and probably is not habitable because of its
400-degree Fahrenheit surface temperature.
But the new planet are most likely holds a lot
of water even in ocean form and its density is
one-third that of our Earth. The planet radius is
2.68 times that s of Earth’s radius (R), and is
about 6.55M times as massive as earth. It is
the second smallest planet discovered outside
of our solar system to date, trailing behind
only CoRoT-7b, which is 1.7 times Earth's size
and about five times as massive.
Charbonneau's team thinks GJ 1214b is likely
a water world with a solid center. Moreover,
the planet has a thick surrounding atmosphere
of hydrogen and helium. But scientists think
the thick atmosphere of GJ1214b creates a
high-pressure environment that keeps water on
the surface in a liquid state.That's just
speculation, however, If life exists there, it
would probably be well adapted to swim in
400-degree oceans (and actually it may be
cooler than, depending on the planet’s albedo].
Figure 2 shows Kepler pin down planet size
tuning to the music of the sphere.<br />
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434/475"> Fig. 1: GJ1214b Orbiting a Red Dwarf Star.</a><br />
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434/475"> Fig. 2: Kepler Pin Down Planet Size Tuning tothe Music of the Sphere. Courtesy: NASA/JPL.</a><br />
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434"><br /></a>
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">Journal of Aerospace Engineering & TechnologyVolume 9, Issue 1ISSN: 2231-038X (Online), ISSN: 2348-7887 (Print)JoAET (2019) 30-39 © STM Journals 2019. All Rights Reserved Page 32</a><br />
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<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">WHAT ARE SUPER EARTHS?</a><br />
<br />
Super-earth had been found in our nearby stars
also. Six such "super-Earths" had been found
orbiting our sun-like neighbor stars in our
galaxy. The smallest of the bunch weighs in at
about five times the mass of Earth and orbits a
star known as 61 Virginis, which is visible
with the naked eye in the constellation Virgo.
The star is 28 light-years from Earth and
closely resembles the sun in size, age and
other attributes. Two other newly detected
planets -- each about the size of Neptune -- are
part of 61 Virginis' family. Another planet that
is 7.8 times larger than Earth orbits HD 1461,
a sun-like star located 76 light-years away in
the constellation Cetus. Super-earths are thus
very common all over the universe. In general,
Super-earths are defined exclusively by their
mass, and the term does not imply
temperatures, compositions, orbital properties,
or environments similar to earth. A variety of
specific mass values are cited in definitions of
Super-earths. Super-earths are planets- so
named however for their size, - which ranges
from about 2 to 10 times that of earth masses -
may be superior to the earth, when it comes to
the questions of sustaining life. Super-earths
have terrestrial surfaces or liquid oceans that
however can support life as we know it.
Astrobiologists thinks, we are more likely to
find a life on rocky planets with liquid water,
though not an single super earth has been
detected so far with life or ocean like earth
planet.They estimated that there could be a
hundred million such habitable Super-earth
planets just in our Milky Way galaxy. They
predict that we’ll find more 50 to 100 Superearth planets in the next 5-10 years. The
Super-earth are traced by the detection of the
stellar light reflected by that planet or of the
thermal photons emitted by the planet. Both
approaches are however valid and may
provide complementary information. The
planetary properties those are observed and
scientists are interested in observing and
constraining are: the size (mass and radius),
the atmosphere (chemical composition, clouds,
seasonal variations, and thermal inertia), and
the surface (type -rocks, ice, water,
“vegetation”-, in homogeneities), rotation
(period, atmospheric dynamics) and
environment (rings). Reflected light and/or
thermal emission may be used to study these
planetary characteristics. The former approach
relies on the information that can be extracted
from the stellar light reflected by the planet as
a function. The NASA started The Super-Earth
Explorer Corona graphic Off Axis Space
Telescope (SEE-COAST) mission in 2016.<br />
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434"><b><br /></b>
</a><b><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434"> ARE SUPER EARTH SUSTAINABLEFOR LIFE</a> </b><br />
But are these super earths will be habitable for
the life or sustaining for life? More the
massive a planet is the hotter is its interior.
Tectonics is one of the key features of our
planet which however made once life possible
here. If not for tectonics, carbon was highly
needed by life would stay locked within rocks.
Our life is carbon-based RNA/DNA life.
Super-Earths, with a larger and hotter interior,
would have a thinner planetary crust placed
under more stress. This probably would result
in faster tectonics, as well as more
earthquakes, volcanism, and other geologic
upheavals. Earth has a circular orbit 150
million kilometers away from the Sun, a
yellow dwarf star. This helps keep conditions
warm enough so that our oceans don’t freeze
over, but cool enough so that we don’t lose all
our water through evaporation. Let us consider
how life evolved in the planet the earth [2].<br />
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434"> HOW LIFE EVOLVE IN OURPLANET THE EARTH? </a><br />
The Evolution of Planet & Planetesimals
The Earth was considered to develop out of
interstellar gas and dusts somewhat 4.6 billion
years ago and from the fossil records, we
know that origin of life happened soon after
4.0billion years ago that was either in the
ocean or in ponds or in the rocks of the
primitive earth. At about 4.5 billion years ago
(Ga) a portion of interstellar cloud attained a
critical density after which it underwent
collapse phenomenon to form the Star
“Nebula”. This Solar Nebula was a rotating
disk with a central bulge. Half or more of the
mass of that solar nebula was concentrated
into a solar mass, and this central mass
subsequently evolved to our Sun. In the
extended disk, outside the central
condensation, a portion of a tiny fraction of the
nebular mass, that was in the form of solid
grains settled out of nebular gas to form a
dust-rich layer in the central plane of that disk.
Super-earths (Exo-planets)<br />
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In the inner portion of the disk, which was a
much warmer portion of the disk, the dust
consisted of grains of nickel, iron and silicate
metals. In the outer portion, which wasa cooler
portion of the disk, abundant grains of ice and
organic compound accumulated along with
augmented layers of solid matter. The solid
matter within these dense, dirty layers, grains,
water, ice, agglomerated to form clumps. The
clumps continued to accrete until much of the
solid matter was tied up in kilometer-sized
planetesimals. Gravitational forces became
important at this scale and larger bodies of
hundred to thousands kilometer size or more
were formed further by the accumulation of
these formed up planetesimals. At some points
of this process, a few of these bodies began to
grow very rapidly at expenses of their smaller
neighbors and formed embryonic planets. The
nebula from which such embryonic planets
were formed had the same composition to the
sun, mostly hydrogen, and helium and a small
sprinkling amount of heavier elements,
Oxides, and hydrides of heavier elements, that
must have condensed into particles and
accreted to form final planets. The Jovian
planets then were able to retain a substantial
amount of gas as well. Their satellite and their
ring system [like that of Jupiter, sat tern] also
contained ice, water and rocks [oxides and
hydrides of heavier elements]. The terrestrial
elements were mainly rocks and a small
amount of icy material. This icy material
appeared on the atmosphere of earth planet or
on the other planets also but much on earth
planet and later helped to form the ocean. The
original dust grains then accreted by a process,
which is still not very well understood into
bigger and bigger objects. It is assumed that
there were about 500 of these planetesimals
roughly of the size of the moon.
The Thermal Escape Theory
The merging of these planetesimals gave birth
to planets in the region, now occupied by
terrestrial planets. So the planets found
although different in each run must have a
general resemblance to what we find in the
solar system. After the planets were formed
each planet was too hot. Then there occurred
“thermal escape”. Thermal escape process is
the classical example of light gas also. It is
then known as “Jeans escape”. The basic idea
of jeans escape was that above some critical
level, we call it “Exobase’ atoms were in highvelocity tail of Max William distribution and
must escape, if they were directed upward at
or above the escape velocity, was for earth
11.2 Km/second. The exobase level for the
earth was500-600 kilometer. Thermal escape
phenomenon explains explain to us that the
most massive bodies of the solar system had a
dense and denser atmosphere. Thermal escape
also says that atmosphere was the generally
deficient atmosphere in light atoms such as
hydrogen and helium. Thermal escape also
suggests that heavy gases, even nitrogen (N)
must be stable for planet earth and
planetesimal moon. But Thermal escape
Phenomenon theory, later on, found
unattractive before the scientist because of the
following reasons that
The Blow of Evolution Theory
1) The escape was from a level with low
density 11) The principal term in the Jean
escape equations was e –GMm/KTr where G
was the Newton’s gravitational constant M,r,t
was M= Planetary mass, r=
radius=Temperature exobase,m=atomic mass,
K= Boltzmann's constant. So after thermal
escape theory came ‘Blow off evolution
theory”. According to this theory, a rapid
hydrodynamic outflow of light gas can carry
along with it heavier gases at a rate that has a
liner dependence on mass rather than the
exponential on of Jean's mass Equation. Likely
gases were H, Hydrogen, or possibly CH4.
The mechanism for loss of heavier atoms was
essentially an aerodynamic drag. Because all
gas atoms had at that time nearly the same
diameter and they’ll experience an upward
drag. But at the same time, these gases also
experienced a downward drag due to Gravity.
And the net vector force was strongly mass
dependent. Indeed for the heavier atoms, the
drag force could be smaller than weight.
According to this theory, H must come from
accreted gas or from water vapor on planet
earth, which could be photodissociated or react
with hydrocarbons or with crustal iron. The
solar heat than to run this flow were ionizing
one and less then~100nm which contained ~
1x10-5 of present solar spectral power. So to
drive a suitable flow of Hydrogen from earth<br />
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<br />
would require ~100 times as much as short
wavelength radiation decay over a period of
few hundred million years. G. W. Wetherill
[3] suggested that earth formed 10010 million
years and earth’s interior was initially very hot
as a result of large asteroids or commentary or
planetesimals impact events Watherill [3]
suggested that earth’s core was probably
formed simultaneously with accretion As a
result iron, nickel was removed from earth’s
upper mantle.
Volcanoes
As early as 4.5 billion years ago (Ga) volcanic
gases started to release and had been relatively
oxidized. Moreover, many of earth’s volatile
gases were probably released on impact. This
process might have formed a steam
atmosphere during at least in a part of the
accreatory period. Simultaneously the escape
phenomenon went on with H and H2 Rapid
hydrodynamic escape of hydrogen could drag
the other gases with it particularly lighter
isotopes, which were carried off more easily
than heavier one. Hydrodynamic escape,
however,, became difficult after 4.5 Ga in post
accretion era, because after ~4.5 Ga the solar
ultraviolet flux was lower and energy available
to fuel up the escape process phenomenon
were greatly reduced. Further more the escape
rate became limited by diffusion once
hydrogen became a minor component of the
accreatory atmosphere, as a consequence of
the reduction of water by infalling metallic
iron-rich planetesimals or asteroids as impacts.
The water or ice vaporized due to the heat
generated by in fall of impact on earth’s
surface as huge bombardments from space.
Rainy Atmosphere
Then Started the Rainy Atmosphere
Once the main accreatory phase had ended, the
surface heat flux of the earth had come down
much and the steam atmosphere was rained
out for 0.3 Ga with heavy lightening on the
sky of Earth. Ocean was thus formed on the
earth’s surface. The remaining atmosphere
would probably then dominated by carbon and
nitrogen compounds, mainly in the form of
CO2, CO, N2, NO. Next to water carbon atom
was most abundant in the volatile form in
earth’s atmosphere & in the surface. Most of
the carbon atom was in relatively nonvolatile
form in the carbonate rock, under the ocean.
The estimated crustal abundance of carbon
was~1023, which was sufficient to produce
60-80 bars, where all of it present in the
atmosphere of earth as CO2. Moreover as
much as 15% of this carbon resided in the
atmosphere before continents of earth started
to grow in the ocean and carbonates rocks
began to accumulate on the earth surface. This
type of atmosphere was for the first several
hundred million years. The mean surface
temperature of the earth was then ~850 °C.
Even after the main accretion period ended the
earth surface environment underwent further
rapid changes.
Comets Impact
Significant numbers of large impactors
[>100Km in diameter] continued to hit both
the earth’s and moon surface, until at least 3.8
billion years ago (3.8Ga). Some of these imp
actors were of commentary of carbonaceous
chondrite composition and quiet substantial
amount of water and Ice were brought on earth
surface for a period Of 0.7 billion years
through these commentary bombardments, as
if comets were used as a vehicle for organic
compounds as well water for the earth, from
space. These impacts also did effect the earth’s
atmosphere composition by providing a source
of CO&NO. CO could have been also
produced by oxidation of organic carbon in
carbonaceous impacts or by reduction of
ambient atmospheric CO2 by iron-rich
impactors. NO would have been also
generated by shock heating atmospheric CO2
&N2. The heavy bombardments of impacts on
the earth’s surface at about 3.8Ga. 3.5 Ga as
evidenced by the presence of micro fossils and
stromatolites probably started life in the
ancient samples [4]. The narrow window of
time between 3.8Ga and3.5 Ga was the most
probable time for the life to be originated on
earth’s surface. Before 3.8Ga the uppermost
layer of the ocean on the earth’s surface would
probably have been evaporated several times
& repeatedly by the large impacts. Impacts
however larger than 440 Kilometer in diameter
could have vaporized water from the entire
ocean in earth sterilizing the planet with
possible exception living in sediments and
submarine hydrothermal region for some
hundred years. Events of these magnitudes
Super-earths (Exo-planets)<br />
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were possible before 3.8 and probably before
4.5 Ga.<br />
<br />
<b>EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE HISTORY
& MILLAR UREY EXPERIMENT</b><br />
Thus the probability of life could have
originated many times during the first part of
earth’s atmospheric history but if though
originated it did not survive until towards the
end of heavy bombardments of impacts. The
reader of this article will like to Know what
was the atmosphere consisted around 3.8Gaon
earth? Because the atmosphere played a major
role as per the Miller Urey jar experiment [5].
Both of them were awarded Nobel prize for
their Experiments and conclusion. Miller Urey
experiment showed that many biologically
important macromolecule, important organic
compound including sugars and amino acid
(Glycine) could be formed by a spark
discharge simulating Lightening {During
impact bombardment period and steamy
weather to rain fall on earth surface & further
vaporization of upper layer of ocean} in a jar
containing CH4-NH3-H-H2O, the early
atmospheric gas on earth’s surface. According
to Miller Urey, subsequent reactions between
these compounds organized a self-replicating
RNA molecule- The first life appeared in the
earth. Changes in the surface temperature of
the earth throughout its history were very
important for understanding both the
geological development of earth surfaces and
origin and development of life in earth. Carl
Sagon and Muller G carried out a theoretical
investigation of living term changes in the
earth temperature on assumption that major
infrared absorbing gases in earth atmosphere
had always been vapor and carbon dioxide [6].
But in view of accepted boundary condition
for early earth, they concluded that the original
terrestrial atmosphere must also have
contained additional absorbing gases. The
earth’s early atmosphere must have gone
significant changes in chemical composition as
the postulated additional absorbing agency
was removed. Secondly, because any
physically probable additional absorber was
likely to belong to a chemical species that
figured in concerning the origin of life. Sagan
& Muller considered “The Ammonia” to be
the most probable candidate. The surface
temperature could be calculated in two stages.
The first involved the computation of effective
temperature of the planet earth Te-S (1-A) =
fóTe4 where S = Solar constant, A = the
spherical Abedo of earth, f=the flux factor ó
=the steafan Boltzmann constant. For a rapidly
rotating planet, with a thick atmosphere, the
area of emitting radiation is taken as 4Ï R2
where R= planetary Radius. Since the area
receiving solar radiation as 4ÏR2, the flux
factor becomes 4. In case of slowly rotating
planets with the thin atmosphere, the area of
emitting radiation is similarly 2Ï R2 and the
flux factor f=2. The second stage of their
calculation relates Te to the surface
temperature Ts by an equation Ts=Te+ÄT
where ÄT was the greenhouse effect in the
earth, which also played a vital role in the
appearance of life in this planet. On the
lifetime of the Earth for the period 4.5 to 4.0
Ga the solar constant (S) had increased by 40-
45%, since the origin of the solar system. If
this was to fit into the model Ts = TetÄT, then
the surface temperature of the earth was below
the freezing point of water during the early
phase of earth’s history i.e. the earth had to
pass an “Ice Cold Stage also”. But the
geological evidence suggest the presence of
extended sheet of liquid water on earth’s
surface was the pre-requisite condition for
appearance of life at least3700MYR ago Carl
Sagan and Muller G also suggested that the
infant biosphere of earth was warmed by an
atmospheric gas which exerted a ‘Greenhouse
effect’ by transmitting sunlight while
hindering the escape of heat to space. Water
vapor made the most significant contribution
to the greenhouse effect in that contemporary
atmosphere. A sudden fall in temperature
could result it an increase in the size of polar
ice caps of earth and seasonal snowfields and a
corresponding fall in the atmospheric
humidity. Both effects would contribute a
further drop in the temperature. On the other
hand, a sudden rise in temperature increased
the water vapor content of the atmosphere.<br />
<b><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434/475"><br /></a></b>
<b><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">METHANE AND WATER AREIMPORTANT TO ANY LIFE</a> </b><br />
<br />
Sagan and Muller suggested that early
atmosphere was very rich in ammonia gas and
this ammonia provided the blanket to keep the
Journal of Aerospace Engineering & Technology
Volume 9, Issue 1
ISSN: 2231-038X (Online), ISSN: 2348-7887 (Print)
JoAET (2019) 30-39 © STM Journals 2019. All Rights Reserved Page 36
earth sufficiently warm for life to emerge.
Recent works suggested that the primordial
atmosphere probably contained little ammonia
but the relatively high partial pressure of CO2.
CO2 also acted as blanket gas as greenhouse
gas. Whatever the greenhouse gas, ammonia
or CO2, mean surface temperature of earth
exceeded that time over 500c with a 25%
increase in solar heat flux. Now the question
stands for CH4 and NH3. However, CH4
(methane) and NH3 (ammonia) might not have
been present in the atmosphere of the early
earth. Whether methane and ammonia were
present or not in primitive earth’s atmosphere
were a debatable situation and might depend
on whether the oxidation state of the upper
mantle of atmosphere varied over time or not.
For that required volcanic sources where from
methane and ammonia become a significant
component of volcanic gas. Yet the volcanic
gases were there, the mantle could have been
oxidized gradually by recycling of water from
the surface to atmosphere and atmosphere to
surface, followed by volcanic outgassing of
hydrogen. These processes, of course, could
have required hundreds of millions of billions
of years to bring the mantle to be its present
oxidation state. Not by mere 0.7 billion years.
So in absence of volcanic sources of methane
and ammonia gases, the past history of
bombardment atmosphere was probably
dominated by carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas
with traces of CO, H2, NO, N2, reduced
sulpher gas.<br />
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">FORMALDEHYDE & HYDROGENCYANIDE HOW FORMED</a><br />
With regard to the origin of life, the key and
very important question was whether
photochemical reaction in such an atmosphere
could have generated Formaldehyde (H2CO)
and hydrogen cyanide (HCN)? The
formaldehyde was needed to the synthesis of
backbone sugar molecule of RNA and HCN
was for the synthesis of amino acid for base
sequences of RNA nucleotides. Pinto showed
that an efficient pathway for formaldehyde
synthesis existed even in carbon dioxide
dominated atmosphere when these molecules
should have readily available [7]. But the
formation of HCN was very much and almost
difficult because it would require then
breaking up both an NßN and a CßC triple
bond [if it started N2 & CO2 to form HCN]
both bonds can be severed in very hightemperature core of lightning discharge. Yet
the resulting N and C atoms are more likely to
combine with O2 atoms than with each other
unless the atmospheric C:O ratio exceeds
unity. However, Zahnle showed that HCN
could be formed by ion spherically produced
N atoms reacting with photolysis by-product
of trace elements (1-10ppm) of CH4 [8].
However such a scenario requires an
atmospheric source of CH4. So explaining how
HCN could have formed is still a major hurdle
for theories of the origin of Life that rely on
the atmosphere as a source of starting
materials. When one thinks of varied
molecular process at the origin of life, one can
imagine that the first replicating molecule that
brought life on the earth was an RNA
molecule. Possibly about 4.6 Billion years ago
(Ga) lightning and ultraviolet radiation from
the sun were enough to break up simple
hydrogen-rich molecule of the primitive
atmosphere. The fragments spontaneously then
recombined into more and more complex
molecules. The products of this early
chemistry were dissolved in water of ocean or
ponds forming a kind of organic soup, which
gradually had an increasing complexity, until
one fine day, quiet by an accident? - A
molecule arose that was able to make crude
copies of it using buildings blocks of their
molecules in that soup- which was the master
molecule of life – The DNA. It took approx
one million years to develop a DNA molecule
from RNA molecule in the earth. It was
possible that life was largely confined to sea
during the Archaean period. In the ocean, the
atmospheric partial pressure of CO2
maintained a continuous flux of particulate
organic matter for life into the deep ocean.
These fluxes resulted from primary production
in the surface layers which was limited by the
rate of supply of nutrients notably nitrogen and
phosphorus, from reverie inputs and from the
slow circulation of nutrients-CO2 rich deep
ocean water. In 1950 Stanley Muller and
Harold Urey did an experiment individually
and isolate with all possible primitive gasses
present in the early atmosphere of the earth in<br />
<br />
S<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">uper-earths (Exo-planets) Bhattacharya et alJoAET (2019) 30-39 © STM Journals 2019. All Rights Reserved Page 37</a><br />
<br />
an airtight thick non breakable glass bottle and
gave constant electrical sparkling discharge at
the glass bottle. After 100 minutes of constant
sparkling resulted in a product looking like
Tar. It was extremely rich in a collection of
amino acids (constituent parts of protein) and
nucleic acid and amino acids. But not life<a href="http://./">.</a><br />
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">HOW OXYGEN CAME IN ANATMOSPHERE OF EARTH</a><br />
Oxygen was nearly absent in the atmosphere
of the early earth. Oxygen did not start to build
up in the atmosphere probably until about 600
million years ago and it wasn’t until the end of
the protozoic era that it started to approach
today’s level 21%. It appears before these
authors that photosynthetic organisms
appeared about 2.2 billion years ago in the
earth. At that point, neither the sea nor air of
earth contained free oxygen. The oxygen
content of the atmosphere then became 1.5
billion ago 1%, at the 600 million year point
mentioned above; the oxygen content is
thought to have exceeded 6% in 1.5 billion
years. This would have been about 50-80
million years before the Cambrian explosion.
By relating atmosphere composition to the
chemistry of various ancient rocks types,
geologists have inferred that earth went from
large oxygen-free to oxygen-rich 2.4 billion to
2.5 billion years ago. For some untold eon,
more primitive microbes must live the real old
fashioned way: anaerobically. These ancient
organisms and their “Extremophiles”
descendants today thrived in the total absence
of oxygen, relying on sulphate for their energy
needs. The fossil record shows that
cyanobacteria existed about 2.7 billion years
ago, leaving scientists to wonder why 200
million to 300 million years of oxygen
production by these bacteria resulted in no
accumulation of the gas. So photosynthesis
would have created a net gain of oxygen first
in the ocean and later in the atmosphere.
Eventually, with sufficient oxygen in the
atmosphere, respiration would have balanced
photosynthesis except when burial removed
the organic material from the oxygenated
water or air. Before oxygen could build up in
the atmosphere it must have oxidizes reduced
ions in seawater. During the period 2.7 to 2.2
billion years ago, these early bacteria are
known as “cyanobacteria” used energy from
the sun for photosynthesis, and release oxygen
as a byproduct. They also sequestered carbon
dioxide in organic molecules.. They do not
have a nucleus and reproduce only by cell
division. These creatures are the earliest
evidence of cellular life on earth. They were
the first organisms to develop photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis today is balanced by oxygen
using respiration. There is a group of one
celled organisms that can live in an oxygen free environment. These are the bacteria or
prokaryotes. For some untold eons prior to the
evolution of these cyanobacteria, during the
Achaean eon, more primitive microbes lived
the real old fashioned way: anaerobically.
These ancient organisms and their
“extremophile” decedents today thrived in the
absence of oxygen, relying on sulfate for their
energy needs. Later the researches also had
discovered a possible new species of bacteria
that would survive in the early earth by
producing and “breathing “its own oxygen.
This finding suggests that some microbes
could have thrived without oxygen producing
plants on the early earth and thus possibly on
other planets of our solar system even by using
their oxygen to garner energy from methane
(CH4). The oxygen producing bacterium
provisionally was named Methyolmirbilis
oxyfera, could grow in a layer of methane-rich
but oxygen-poor mud at the bottom of rivers
and lakes of the early earth. These microbes
live on a diet of methane and nitrogen oxides,
such as nitrite and nitrate. These nitrogencontaining compounds are especially abundant
in sediment contaminated by agricultural runoff
today. The microbes extract energy from
methane through a chemical process linked to
Dentification, which releases nitrogen and
oxygen from nitrogen oxides. The two known
groups of methane-consuming bacteria live
either the absence of oxygen (anaerobic
methanotrophs) or exploit oxygen from the
atmosphere. The M oxyphera can survive in
methane-rich areas that are inhospitable to many
other bacteria it does with the help of an enzyme
perhaps a nitric oxide dismutase that combines<br />
Journal of Aerospace Engineering & Technology
Volume 9, Issue 1
ISSN: 2231-038X (Online), ISSN: 2348-7887 (Print)
JoAET (2019) 30-39 © STM Journals 2019. All Rights Reserved Page 38<br />
<br />
molecules of nitric oxides to form nitrogen and
oxygen. The oxygen is then used to metabolize
methane to produce water and carbon dioxide.
Figure 3 shows the habitable zones for different
types of stars.<br />
<b><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">CONCLUSION</a></b><br />
<br />
Most of the known Super-Earths are very close
to their orbiting stars, closer than the planet
Mercury is to our Sun. Even though these stars
don’t burn as brightly as our Sun, the planets
are so close they are like burnt cinders
flickering close to a fire. For astrobiologists
hoping to find alien life, two Super-Earths
orbiting the star Gliese 581 [this super-earth
was discovered by Michel Mayor of the
Geneva Observatory] have the potential for
life. Gliese 581, a red dwarf star, with only
one-third of the mass of our sun, is cooler than
our Sun. Based on their orbit around this star,
planets Gliese 581- c [discovered by Stéphane
Udry et al on April 4, 2007and Gliese 581-d
[discovered by Diana Valencia and her team]
are thought to have better habitable conditions,
although some think planet “c” might have a
run away greenhouse atmosphere like Venus
[9, 10] . Gliese 581 c has its mass at least 5.36
times that of the Earth. Gravity on such a
planet's surface should be approximately 2.24
times as strong as on Earth. No direct evidence
has been found for water to be present in
Gliese 581 c, but it is probably not present in
the liquid state may be in the form of vapor in
the planet's atmosphere, Two years ago,
Mayor discovered a planet the size of Neptune
and two super-Earths orbiting this star. The
newly discovered planet, named Gliese 581 e<br />
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434/475">(Figure 4),</a><br />
is now the fourth known planet in
this solar system and the lightest, weighing in
at only 1.94 Earth masses. It flies around the
star at dizzying speed, taking just 3.15 days to
complete an orbit. This new planet orbits so
close to the star that its water would have
boiled away long ago. It is therefore not in the
habitable zone (Figure 3).
For an amino acid to form all it would take is
organic compounds and liquid water An amino
acid Glycin, one of the essential ingredients to life
on Earth, has been found in a comet in the comet
Wild 2, and not the result of terrestrial
contamination. But simple the detection of
organic compounds will not necessarily mean
there's life on a planet, because there are other
ways to generate such molecules. It simply means
that there are a lot more life-giving chemicals
Fig. 3: The Habitable Zones for Different Types of Stars, with our Solar System as an example. As a
Planet is pulled in towards its Star, it can be pulled away from the Habitable Zone.<br />
<br />
Super-earths (Exo-planets) Bhattacharya et al
JoAET (2019) 30-39 © STM Journals 2019. All Rights Reserved Page 39
Fig. 4: Gliese 581 e (foreground) is only about
Twice the Mass of our Earth. The Gliese 581
Planetary System now has four known planets,
with Masses of about 1.9 (planet e, left in the
foreground), 16 (planet b, nearest to the star),
5 (planet c, centre), and 7 Earth-masses
(planet d, with the bluish color).Credit: ESO<br />
<br />
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">ACKNOWLEDGEMENT</a><br />
To diseased late Mr. Bholanath Bhattacharya
and late Mrs. Bani Bhattacharya (parents of
residence 7/51 Purbapalli, Po-sodepur Dist 24
Parganas (North), Kolkata-110, West Bengal,
India for their initial teaching for us about the
universe, Big Bang and Pan-spermia Theory.<br />
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434"><br /></a>
<a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434"> REFERENCES</a><br />
1. Andrew Moseman. New Super-Earth: Hot,
Watery, and Nearby. 80beats. December
17, 2009. Accessed May 13, 2019.
http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beat
s/2009/12/17/new-super-earth-hot-wateryand-nearby/#.XNkzE9QzbIU.<br />
2. Siegfried, Tom. Infinity. Science News.
January 15, 2015. Accessed May 13, 2019.
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/infini
ty.<br />
3. Wetherill, G. W. Occurrence of Giant
Impacts During the Growth of the
Terrestrial Planets. Science.1985;
228(4701): 877-79p.
doi:10.1126/science.228.4701.877<br />
4. Thread: Is It Possible for a Planet like This
to Exist? Is It Possible for a Planet like
This to Exist? - Page 2. Accessed May 15,
2019.
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5. Schopf, J.W. Earth's earliest biosphere:
Its origin and evolution. United States:
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6. Schopf, J., and B. Packer. Early Archean
(3.3-billion to 3.5-billion-year-old)
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7. Miller, S. L. A Production of Amino Acids
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8. Pinto, J. P., G. R. Gladstone, and Y. L.
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9. Udry, S., X. Bonfils, X. Delfosse, T.
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Bouchy, C. Lovis, F. Pepe, D. Queloz, and
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545-51p. doi:10.1086/509800.
<b><a href="http://techjournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/JoAET/article/view/434">Cite this Article</a></b><br />
Rupak Bhattacharya, Pranab Kumar
Bhattacharya, Upasana Bhattacharya,
Ritwik Bhattacharya, Rupsa Bhattacharya,
Dalia Mukherjee, Oaindrila Mukherjee,
Ayshi Mukherjee, Debasis Mukherjee.
Super-earths (Exo-planets): How Much
Probability of Colonization of Life is
There?. Journal of Aerospace Engineering
& Technology. 2019; 9(1): 30–39p.<br />
<br />
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<span class="_ezo" id="u_0_y" style="color: #f1765e; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-weight: 600;">congratulations</span><span> </span>to my youngest Brother<span> </span><a class="profileLink" data-hovercard-prefer-more-content-show="1" data-hovercard="/ajax/hovercard/user.php?id=100029103227155&extragetparams=%7B%22__tn__%22%3A%22%2CdK-R-R%22%2C%22eid%22%3A%22ARDslx3M9PFcsojlb6jYpe4-8Aa2WeZab6e7DGR-Am6it4161FxhlBo3Hb_JfoinA3UqsYt-LpquvTQ6%22%2C%22fref%22%3A%22mentions%22%7D" href="https://www.facebook.com/rupak.bhattacharjee.77715?__tn__=%2CdK-R-R&eid=ARDslx3M9PFcsojlb6jYpe4-8Aa2WeZab6e7DGR-Am6it4161FxhlBo3Hb_JfoinA3UqsYt-LpquvTQ6&fref=mentions" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration: none;">Rupak Bhattacharjee</a><span> </span>for being FSFRC (Fellow of Science of Frontier Research council )</div>
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the E mail Received today in the E mail box of Profpkb@yahoo.co.in</div>
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To,<span> </span><br />Rupak Bhattacharya, 7/51 Purbapalli , PO- sodepur, District 24 parganas, West Bengal<span> </span><br />Calcutta University.,<span> </span><br />India.</div>
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Dear Mr. Rupak Bhattacharya,</div>
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We at Global Journals always keep evaluating the research works that are published. G J has recently curated the most impactful papers published under GJSFR in the recent times. Yours paper 'The Cosmic Web, the Seed Of Galaxies- are Also Made of Warm Intergalactic Medium (WHIM) and Dark Energy?' is one of them. It has been cited numerous times and has been proving to a significant work in the field of Asrtro Physics and Astronomy . I hope that you’ll continue to work on this research stream.<span> </span><br />Global Journals always strives to establish a stronger academic relationship with our esteemed researches and authors. It helps us to walk the talk of harnessing authentic information’s potential to contribute to the growth of entire research community and advancing the way in which the knowledge seekers would want to use it in future.<span> </span><br />I am glad to bring this in your information that 2019 early nominations for membership are now open. <a href="https://globaljournals.org/member/fsfrc-asfrc-memberships?email=profpkb@yahoo.co.in" target="_blank">Global Journals' Fellow Membership is the most prestigious recognized membership/award of universities around world that is awarded only to a select few researchers and scientists. The credentials are only titled to subject matter experts like yourself and are only on the nomination/invitation basis. Global Journals' Editorial and Management Board is inviting you to join our membership.</a> There are many benefits that you are entitled to like access to the internal network, recognition on the website, an email account like john@globaljournals.org, recognition and recommendation letter from our end to your university or institution's director, you'll be getting the certificate, a shield and research cards, FSFRC/ASFRC designations, paper publication waived off, cloud access and other.<span> </span><br />FSFRC/ASFRC is the most prestigious membership of Global Journals accredited by Open Association of Research Society, U.S.A (OARS). The credentials of Fellow and Associate designations signify that the researcher has gained the knowledge of the fundamental and high-level concepts, and is a subject matter expert, proficient in an expertise course covering the professional code of conduct, and follows recognized standards of practice. The credentials are designated only to the , scientists, and professionals that have been selected by a rigorous process by our Editorial Board and Management Board.</div>
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Associates of FSFRC/ASFRC are scientists and researchers from around the world are working on projects/researches that have huge potentials. Members support Global Journals’ mission to advance technology for humanity and the profession.<span> </span><br /><a href="https://globaljournals.org/member/fsfrc-asfrc-memberships?email=profpkb@yahoo.co.in" target="_blank">Kindly check them all here:</a></div>
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<a href="https://globaljournals.org/member/fsfrc-asfrc-memberships?email=profpkb@yahoo.co.in" target="_blank">Download Certificate and Learn More</a><br /><a href="https://globaljournals.org/member/fsfrc-asfrc-memberships?email=profpkb@yahoo.co.in" target="_blank">https://globaljournals.org/member/fsfrc-asfrc-memberships?email=profpkb@yahoo.co.in</a><br />From the above link, you may also download your provisional certificate created.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqZbbbQezJiTuFI80lfKNOZBXuoR62U89ldwKqEW5ZWy_tfb1EgOaXyYWzOeNpBes5SAGaX9gWRxQbrjv0G8nIHdf2EGAsbINpcQakFCpfNido0-lRv_Jj8P7xsi8R7XxsAS14Gwj2dh4/s1600/Rupak_Bhattacharya_Science_Frontier_Research+Fellowship.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1288" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqZbbbQezJiTuFI80lfKNOZBXuoR62U89ldwKqEW5ZWy_tfb1EgOaXyYWzOeNpBes5SAGaX9gWRxQbrjv0G8nIHdf2EGAsbINpcQakFCpfNido0-lRv_Jj8P7xsi8R7XxsAS14Gwj2dh4/s640/Rupak_Bhattacharya_Science_Frontier_Research+Fellowship.jpeg" width="513" /></a></div>
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I am looking forward to having you with us as our prestigious Fellow member. We also waived off 40% of its fee for you. If you need any assistance or have any query feel free to reach out to our support team at helpdesk@globaljournals.org or visit our website and use live chat support.</div>
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I look forward hearing from you soon and a successful academic relationship in the future.<br />Regards,<span> </span><br />Dr. Loreen E. Benson PhD (Boston)<span> </span><br />Fellow Registrar, OARS<span> </span><br />Research Consultant,<span> </span><br />Global Journals</div>
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Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-84789782229360135182018-12-11T03:16:00.001-08:002023-02-14T11:36:44.528-08:00water Matters Nobel week Dialogue 2018 at Stalkholm Sweden<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/NobelDialogue?src=hash" target="_blank">See also at twitters </a> #nobeldialoguehastag<br />
comments of Professor Dr Pranab kumar Bhattacharya<br />
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/%3Cblockquote%20class=%22twitter-tweet%22%20data-lang=%22en%22%3E%3Cp%20lang=%22en%22%20dir=%22ltr%22%3E.%3Ca%20href=%22https://twitter.com/jrockstrom?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%22%3E@jrockstrom%3C/a%3E%20is%20the%20first%20speaker%20at%20the%20%3Ca%20href=%22https://twitter.com/hashtag/nobelweekdialogue?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%22%3E#nobelweekdialogue%3C/a%3E.%20&quot;We%20can%20feed%20the%20world%20within%20the%20planetary%20boundries&quot;%20%3Ca%20href=%22https://twitter.com/hashtag/NobelWeek?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%22%3E#NobelWeek%3C/a%3E%20%3Ca%20href=%22https://twitter.com/hashtag/nobeldialogue?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%22%3E#nobeldialogue%3C/a%3E%20%3Ca%20href=%22https://twitter.com/hashtag/ClimateChange?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%22%3E#ClimateChange%3C/a%3E%20%3Ca%20href=%22https://t.co/JeOQJFC30s%22%3Ehttps://t.co/JeOQJFC30s%3C/a%3E%20%3Ca%20href=%22https://t.co/U6Qh8cFJBo%22%3Epic.twitter.com/U6Qh8cFJBo%3C/a%3E%3C/p%3E&mdash;%20Bj%C3%B6rn%20K%C3%A4llstr%C3%B6m%20(@BjornKallstrom)%20%3Ca%20href=%22https://twitter.com/BjornKallstrom/status/1071698205547618304?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%22%3EDecember%209,%202018%3C/a%3E%3C/blockquote%3E%20%3Cscript%20async%20src=%22https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js%22%20charset=%22utf-8%22%3E%3C/script%3E" target="_blank"><blockquote class="twitter-tweet" data-lang="en"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">.<a href="https://twitter.com/jrockstrom?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">@jrockstrom</a> is the first speaker at the <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/nobelweekdialogue?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#nobelweekdialogue</a>. &quot;We can feed the world within the planetary boundries&quot; <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/NobelWeek?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#NobelWeek</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/nobeldialogue?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#nobeldialogue</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/ClimateChange?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#ClimateChange</a> <a href="https://t.co/JeOQJFC30s">https://t.co/JeOQJFC30s</a> <a href="https://t.co/U6Qh8cFJBo">pic.twitter.com/U6Qh8cFJBo</a></p>&mdash; Björn Källström (@BjornKallstrom) <a href="https://twitter.com/BjornKallstrom/status/1071698205547618304?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">December 9, 2018</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script></a><br />
1] <span style="background-color: white; color: #14171a; font-family: "Segoe UI", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 27px; letter-spacing: 0.27px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://twitter.com/ProfpkbKr/status/1071719720636702726" target="_blank">Ground drinking water depleting contaminated with arsenic leading many diseases. Including cancer,cirrhosis</a>, </span><a class="twitter-hashtag pretty-link js-nav" data-query-source="hashtag_click" dir="ltr" href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/NobelDialogue?src=hash" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #1c94e0; font-family: "Segoe UI", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 27px; letter-spacing: 0.27px; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #1c94e0; font-family: Segoe UI, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 27px; letter-spacing: 0.27px; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); font-size: 27px; letter-spacing: 0.27px; white-space: pre-wrap;">#</span></span><span style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: inherit; font-family: "Segoe UI", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 27px; letter-spacing: 0.27px; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: pre-wrap;">NobelDialogue</span></a><br />
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link <a href="https://twitter.com/ProfpkbKr/status/1071719720636702726" target="_blank">https://twitter.com/ProfpkbKr/status/1071719720636702726</a><br />
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/%3Cblockquote%20class=%22twitter-tweet%22%20data-lang=%22en%22%3E%3Cp%20lang=%22en%22%20dir=%22ltr%22%3E%3Ca%20href=%22https://twitter.com/hashtag/Nobeldialogue?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%22%3E#Nobeldialogue%3C/a%3E%20Water%20Matter%20has%20just%20started!%20%3Cbr%3E%3Cbr%3EWatch%20the%20livestream%20here:%20%3Ca%20href=%22https://t.co/mkJtr93bsJ%22%3Ehttps://t.co/mkJtr93bsJ%3C/a%3E%20%3Ca%20href=%22https://t.co/iqPyfUQ3MC%22%3Epic.twitter.com/iqPyfUQ3MC%3C/a%3E%3C/p%3E&mdash;%20Geophilia%20(@Geophilia_BN)%20%3Ca%20href=%22https://twitter.com/Geophilia_BN/status/1071692800046129152?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%22%3EDecember%209,%202018%3C/a%3E%3C/blockquote%3E%20%3Cscript%20async%20src=%22https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js%22%20charset=%22utf-8%22%3E%3C/script%3E" target="_blank"><blockquote class="twitter-tweet" data-lang="en"><p lang="en" dir="ltr"><a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/Nobeldialogue?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#Nobeldialogue</a> Water Matter has just started! <br><br>Watch the livestream here: <a href="https://t.co/mkJtr93bsJ">https://t.co/mkJtr93bsJ</a> <a href="https://t.co/iqPyfUQ3MC">pic.twitter.com/iqPyfUQ3MC</a></p>&mdash; Geophilia (@Geophilia_BN) <a href="https://twitter.com/Geophilia_BN/status/1071692800046129152?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">December 9, 2018</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script></a><br />
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2] <span style="color: #14171a; font-family: "Segoe UI", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 27px; letter-spacing: 0.01em; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://twitter.com/ProfpkbKr/status/1071727357759696897" target="_blank">Access to safe drinking Water, sanitation is human right. We should reduce house hold water by efficient toilet washing machine, irrigation and electricity generation. Both public and private sector to work with government to keep our planet habitable</a> </span><a class="twitter-hashtag pretty-link js-nav" data-query-source="hashtag_click" dir="ltr" href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/NobelDialogue?src=hash" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #1c94e0; font-family: "Segoe UI", Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 27px; letter-spacing: 0.01em; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: pre-wrap;">#<span style="color: inherit;">NobelDialogue</span></a><br />
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<span class="metadata" style="color: #657786; line-height: 24px; overflow: hidden;">3:24 AM - 9 Dec 2018</span></div>
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Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-79324635715266313082018-12-05T00:42:00.002-08:002023-02-14T11:36:51.688-08:00 An Unsung Hero in Physics<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Despite
being <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>one of a pioneers in the study of <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tachyons, Multi Universe and Zero Rest Mass particles,
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in West Bengal of India Mr. Rupak
Bhattacharya of residence 7/51 Purbapalli ,Sodepur ,24 parganas(north) Kolkata
110, West Bengal , India, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>S/o late Bholanath
Bhattacharya and late Bani Bhattacharya remained practically unknown to the
world- A tribute From </b></span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/18-QR8xcIf2PuCpinhJKI9X3bH4b5Aj9swClfqBKSwOk/edit"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Professor(Dr.)
Pranab kumar Bhatttacharya</span></a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When Judging by his published articles as publications in the most
high impact factor open access indexed journals of science <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>like </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://phys.org/news/2009-05-rare-radio-supernova-nearby-galaxy.html"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Physics Org<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>of American Physical Society</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> ; </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://www.google.co.in/search?q=our+model+of+universe+cosmoquest+forum+pranab+site:forum.cosmoquest.org&ei=i8D_W4f2HISs8QWhlITYBw&start=0&sa=N&filter=0&ved=0ahUKEwjH54C-s_neAhUEVrwKHSEKAXs4ChDy0wMIRg&biw=1366&bih=657"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cosmoquest Forum</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">( Renamed from previous BAD Astronomy &
universe Today ); <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://globaljournals.org/GJSFR.../E-Journal_GJSFR_(A)_Vol_17_Issue_1.pdf"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Global Journals of Science and Frontier
Research</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (
A )Physics and Space Science, USA</span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.openscienceonline.com/journal/archive2?journalId=703&paperId=1548"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">; International journal of Astronomy and
Astrophysics and Space Science of Open Science journal Group USA;</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://www.slideshare.net/STMJournals1/research-reviews-journal-of-space-science-technology-vol-5-issue-3"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Research and Review Journal of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Space science and Technology of STM journal
Group USA,</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Journal “</span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Science “of AAAS.org</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> ; Science News;<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nature ; </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://aip.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1063/1.4901075"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Applied Physics Letter</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> , Physics Review ; </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://phys.org/news/2009-05-rare-radio-supernova-nearby-galaxy.html"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Physical review letter <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>; </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://chadorzel.com/principles/2011/09/24/faster-than-a-speeding-photon/"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Uncertain principal<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Archives </span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>;
Physics World of IOP science Nature Worlds news <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and his self armature research works , at his
paternal house 7/51 purbapalli<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Post
office Sodepur; District 24 parganas (north) Kolkata 110<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rupak probably <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>as a God gifted theoretical physicist grew up
in tremendous<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>economic constrains, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>social negligence as class difference and <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>unimaginable poverty from his child hood <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rupak was born in
march 1974,as youngest twin sons of late </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sodepur&diff=685228526&oldid=685228331"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mr.
Bholanath Bhattacharya(1925-2009)-</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> a retired Account officer of A.G Bengal, Kolkata and a
dedicated worker of CPM party of sodepur panihati of west Bengal, as a true
Marxist by heart and action in his life and Late Mrs. Bani
Bhattacharya(1934-2006),who were resident of7/51 Purbapalli, PO- kolkata-110,
India , was brought up with unimaginable <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>form of poverty, financial constrains for
study <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and also negligence, non
cooperation from his 2nd(Pallab) and 3rd brother's(Biplab) family members and
also of local social negligence as poor socioeconomic class, had his education
from Sodepur Chandrachur Vidyapith [primary and higher secondary], graduated <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>from St. Paul,s college of kolkata of Calcutta
university and finally from Jadavpur university for his masters <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in applied mathematics in 1997 , is <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>an amateur theoretical physicist and
Astrophysicist. He with his eldest brother </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/1iyRkGh4GC7PWhiUOKdbcFhCZzHaln_KJ0isi52nQYm0/edit"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Professor DR. Pranab Kumar
Bhattacharya MD(Calcutta university ), FIcPath(Ind.) ,</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> then a Professor of Pathology, developed a model of Universe
and anti Universe, we nomenclatured it as “ </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?72136-Why-There-s-More-Matter-Than-Antimatter-in-the-Universe&p=1213566#post1213566"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bhattacharya’s
Model of Universe</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">” based
on a mass less[</span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://www.slideshare.net/STMJournals1/research-reviews-journal-of-space-science-technology-vol-5-issue-3"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">zero
rest mass] particle after his name “ R particle”(Rupak Particle) in the family
of neutrinos particles and the cause of mass of particles is another particle
in Higg’s field-<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rupak <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>hypothesized. However the Zero <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>rest mass particle at Plank’s moment is yet a
mathematical model</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to their theory …. in Grand Unified
Theories(GUT), when <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>electron was treated
as neutrinos (ve) and the quarks that made nucleon were at different state of a
single neutrinos particle. In the simplest of Rupak Bhattacharya’s theory, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the small neutrinos mass was given by a
formula by him Mv= mD<sup>2</sup>/M where mD is the quark color mass and M is
the mass which may be as large as the unification scale of 10<sup>14</sup>to 10<sup>15</sup>
Gev. As a result of Rupak Bhattacharya’s equation Mv=mD<sup>2</sup> there
happened three sets of generation of earliest particles. Thus in addition of
electron there is generation of muon [mu=206me] and also” R particles”[ Rupak
Neutrinos mR=3500me]. These R particles are then very similar and close to
gluon particles and correspondingly there are three neutrinos ve vμ <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>vτ and vr. This theory suggest that m
(ve)<< m (vμ)<<m (vτ)<<(vr). So as per Rupak Bhattacharya and
Pranab Bhattacharya’s theory ve, Vμ Vτ and vr are coherent mixture with quarks
in case of electron. Neutrinos produced in nonlinear β decay might be
v1cosθ+v2sinθ where v1 and v2 are the mass eigen state and θ is the mixing
angle. The R particle theory (Rupak Particles) suggest thus a newer model of
universe, we called it “ Bhattacharya model of universe and anti universe”, where
the concept of multiple bubble universe creation was suggested through the Big
Bang like events in the inner scale of time that existed at one end and anti
universe creation at other end of the time scale, instead of conventional
steady state universe or a single bubble Big Bang creation of universe in the
standard Model. Bhattacharya’s Model of universe puts everyone to further
thinking and questions “ </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?72845-What-was-Before-the-Big-Bang-An-Identical-Reversed-Universe"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">what was before Big Bang an
identical universe</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> ?” and”
what was before the boundary or horizon of universe?” Do our universe has a boundary?
Rupak Bhattacharya’s Ritwik Bhattacharya’s and Pranab Bhattacharya’s model of
universe is based on a </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://www.slideshare.net/STMJournals1/research-reviews-journal-of-space-science-technology-vol-5-issue-3"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Zero <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>rest mass particle nomenclature as Rupak
Particle(R Particles) in the neutrinos family is almost consistent with the
concept of dark energies,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>susi particles
in the observable universe</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> and
beyond the boundaries / horizon of universe as antigravity particles and thus
to some extent solving also the critical mass problem of the universe, as
baryons consists of only 4-23% of mass of universe as Mixed Dark Matter mass
and 73% as Dark energy as per open flat, low density universe. According them
“----relativistic gas of free quarks with Pα ρ/3 where P= is the pressure and
ρ= is the energy density of matter. The density at which the baryon to quark
happened, was a </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9803291"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">transition phase in the Universe creation</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> in “Big Bang gospel” and was of crucial importance in
structure formation in the universe. So before<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>baryon was formed in <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>early universe
there was a phase called <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“</span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~proko101/DoruSticlet_pt2.pdf"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">transition phase</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">”. In QCD, success was in describing the interaction of
quarks and gluons or quark with R particles at high energies. Particles at high
energies were asymptotically free, that is, at high energies quark and gluons
or quark or R particles were weakly coupled, while at low energies they
appeared to be confined in hadrons i.e. in baryons and in mesons. However at
high temperature or at high densities, normal nuclear matter underwent a phase
transition to an unconfined quark- gluon or quark- R particle state. In the
early universe the transition from an initial unconfined quark- gluon
phase[Quark Gluon plasma? </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">to confined hadronic phase took place at T≈<sup>10-5</sup>S
after the Big Bang moment. The thermodynamic picture of for quark- hadrons
phase transition viewing hadrons as a bag containing Quark and Gluon or R quark
and R particles equation of state for pressure<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>P and energy density ρQ.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ρQ=π<sup>2</sup>/90[2(Nc<sup>2</sup>-1)+7/2NcNf]T4-β-(1),
ρQ=3ρQ+4β= where ρ=density of Universe, Nc=number of color of quarks
corresponding to Su(Nc) gauge group for QCD(Nc=3) Nf=number of light quark
flavor ( Nf=3 for up, down and strange quark) β = Big constant representing the
distance in vacuum energy between two phase. Based on this equation, we can be
convinced that a transition phase of quark- gluon or Quark- R particles matter
did occur in fact in expanded and cooled as the universe did gradually evolved.
The simple relation between Temperature and thermal radiation time was
therefore was as follows-: tsT2Mev≈ 2.4[N(T)]-1/2 where t= time measure in
second T= Mega electron volts N= number of relative degrees of freedom of all
particles at temperature T. At T≈200 ,the continuement phase transition had
occurred to that at lower temperature, the constituent of universe were
hadrons, leptons, and photons. The corresponding age of the universe at that
time was T≈10<sup>-5 S</sup>. It was not until T≈ 1 orT≈1Mev that the process
leading to nucleosynthesis was important. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">So the cosmic soup consisted of r particles<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>with anti r particles, quarks and anti
quarks, electrons and it’s antiparticles anti electrons or positrons. The
particles and antiparticles were in constant annihilation and radiation as per
Einstein’s famous equation E= mC<sup>2</sup>. At 10<sup>9</sup>K temperature
matter were produced and universe is today made of matter i.e. hadrons.
(Proton, Neutron, lepton, Electrons). But in Big Bang moment universe started
it’s voyage with equal numbers of matter and antimatter. Electron and Positron
were created and were in constant annihilation, liberating burst of energy and
radiation. Thanks to the creator of the Big Bang(if at all was as super most
mathematician ) that during the nucleon synthesis anti proton were not created.
If at all antiproton, antineutron were created they were at least in separate
compartments and did not come into contact [Matter and antimatter as soon as
come in contact both are destroyed and their entire rest mass converts into
radiation and energy known as entropy or annihilation. Late Prof, S.W. Hawking
FRS in his famous book “The Brief history of Time” nicely said –If you even
meet your anti You don’t hand shake with him you will turn into flash,
radiation and energy at once” The Universe consists of now large masses of
matter and antimatter organized into superclasters, galaxies, stars, blackhole,
and planets. According to this view about construction of the universe, the
matter and antimatter should co-exist at some early stage in <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Big Bang. For it only if the temperature was
high enough it should be possible for nucleons and anti nucleons to rub their
shoulders with each other’s. Simple theory suggests that they should after ward
annihilate each other’s with production of photons and neutrinos. To account a
universe in which matter and anti matter were separated in separate galaxies it
is therefore necessary to explain how such a separation could have taken place
at very early stage in the development of primeval fire ball</span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/2010/03/01/the-greatest-story-ever-told-4#comment-1493786"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">? It is still <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>one of the most fundamental questions in
cosmology.</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Antimatter can be more famous in fiction than it is in real life. At the
original star Trek, antimatter reacts with ordinary matter to power the warp
drive that propels the United States. Enterprise at quicker-than-light
velocities. While warp drive is pure fiction, antimatter is very real. We know
that for every particle of ordinary matter, it is possible to have an identical
particle with the opposite electrical charge. An antiproton is much like a
proton, for example, but with a negative charge. The antiparticle corresponding
to the negatively charged electron, meanwhile, is the positively charged
positron. Physicists have created antimatter in the laboratory. However when
they do, they create an equal amount of matter. That indicates that the big
Bang must have created matter and antimatter in same quantities. But nearly
everything we see around us, from the ground under our feet to the most remote
galaxies, is made of ordinary matter. What’s happening? </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2018/07/the-ten-biggest-but-yet-today.html"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Why is there more
matter than antimatter? Our best wager is that the big Bang somehow produced a
tiny bit extra matter than antimatter.“What had to have happened early in the
history of the universe — in the very moments after the big Bang — is that for
every 10 billion antimatter particles there were 10 billion and one matter
particle. And the matter and the antimatter annihilated the ten billion,
leaving the one. And that little ‘one’ is the mass that makes up us.”But why
the slight excess of matter over antimatter in the first place? “We genuinely
don’t understand that</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">,. “It’s weird.” Had the initial quantities of matter and antimatter
been equal, they’d have annihilated each other completely in a burst of energy.
In which case, says Lincoln, “we wouldn’t exist.” Some answers may come when
the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) starts collecting data in 2026.
DUNE will analyse a beam of neutrinos — tiny, charge less and nearly mass less
particles — fired from Fermilab to the Sanford Underground Research Facility in
South Dakota, some 800 miles away. The beam will include neutrinos and anti
neutrinos, with the aim of seeing if they behave in the same manner — thus
potentially providing a clue to nature’s matter-antimatter asymmetry. please
Read our articles published in Science Journal and in others sites<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">https://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/2010/03/01/the-greatest-story-ever-told-4#comment-8636<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?107287-Where-Went-the-Anti-matter&p=1784461#post1784461"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?107287-Where-Went-the-Anti-matter&p=1784461#post1784461</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2018/07/the-ten-biggest-but-yet-today.html"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">http://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2018/07/the-ten-biggest-but-yet-today.html</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; border: solid #C8CCD1 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt;">
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style", serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The question of existence of antimatter in significant quantities in the present universe. in our</span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> galaxy! </span>The question of whether antimatter had an equal role with matter in making up </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">galaxies? In a contemporary Para diagram of Grand Unified theories & Gauge Theories. </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">These questions are related to the questions of nature of charge, parity variations at high energy.</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> The questions of separating matter and antimatter, proton and anti proton, helium and anti helium. </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">The symmetry between matter and antimatter [ i.e baryon symmetry in the cosmology ] </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">that was once observed at lenier accelerator had forced many scientists and astrophysicist</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> to think that there existed also a similar balance in the universe of “’matter and antimatter”” </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">at most early phase of the universe. But we don’t see or don’t find antimatter in our observable</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> universe.</span>Our observable universe is made of matter only. Why? Antimatter annihilate</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> with matter. If that was so, then there would not be any matter to make up </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">super clusters,<span style="color: #222222; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: #222222; font-size: 9pt;">galaxies ,stars,</span>blackholes, planets, our observable universe. Was <span style="color: #222222; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: #222222; font-size: 9pt;">really </span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #222222; font-size: 9pt;">the matter and antimatter mixed together?</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #222222; font-size: 9pt;">Or </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2012/02/where-went-anti-matter-our-theory.html?m=0"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 9pt;">was the matter and antimatter were in two </span></a></span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2012/02/where-went-anti-matter-our-theory.html?m=0"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 9pt;">separate compartments?</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #222222; font-size: 9pt;"> If the later was true, then we</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #222222; font-size: 9pt;">must have another Universe</span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/2010/03/01/the-greatest-story-ever-told-4#comment-1493786"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 9pt;">. </span></a></span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/2010/03/01/the-greatest-story-ever-told-4#comment-1493786"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-size: 9pt;">That universe was made of antimatter</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #222222; font-size: 9pt;">. However universe consisted of </span>large mass of matter and</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> antimatter- standard Big Bang model says so. On this view, in authors opinion,</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> is that whether matter and antimatter must co-existed all together at some early stage of Big Bang.? </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">For it ,only when the temperature was high enough, it was possible for nucleons and anti nucleons,</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> quarks and anti quarks r particles and anti r particles <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to rub their shoulders with each others,</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> and simple theory suggest that these rubbing resulted annihilation with production of photons </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">and neutrinos. H. Alfeven etal ( <a href="http://www.sciresp.org/reference/ReferencesPapers.aspx?ReferenceID=1412941"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Alfeven .H –</span> <span style="font-size: 10.0pt; text-decoration: none;"><span style="mso-field-code: "HYPERLINK \0022http\:\/\/www\.sciresp\.org\/reference\/ReferencesPapers\.aspx?ReferenceID=1412941\0022 \\t \0022_blank\0022";"><b><u><span style="color: #ff3300; font-size: 9.0pt;">Gravitational Signature of Matter-Antimatter Interaction</span></u></b></span></span><span style="color: windowtext; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"> </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></a></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><a href="http://www.sciresp.org/reference/ReferencesPapers.aspx?ReferenceID=1412941"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rev. Mod. Physics Vol37; P652; 1965</span></a>) did bring out a mechanism which permitted region of matter</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> and antimatter to co-exist together in our galaxy, even without appreciable mixing. Otherwise in </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">early state of universe [when a homogeneous universe] there would have to be also a mechanism </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">for separating matter and antimatter so that galaxies were formed in clusters. Then the big questions</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> are 1) what was the mechanism for separation of matter and antimatter?</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> 2) </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?107287-Where-Went-the-Anti-matter"><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;">Where went the bulk of antimatter</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;">? 3) Does <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>antimatter stars or antimatter galaxies were</span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> capable of nuecleosynthesis? Does the antimatter stars or antimatter galaxies at all exists</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> that Rupak Bhattacharjee suggested in </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2012/02/where-went-anti-matter-our-theory.html?m=0"><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;">his concept of anti Universe</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;">? 5) If at all exists what is the</span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> way of communication from our universe made of matter to a Universe made of antimatter?</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> The black holes/ The warm holes? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bhatacharya Pranab Kumar& Bhattacharya Rupak- </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2012/02/where-went-anti-matter-our-theory.html?m=0"><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;">Does the universe contain also anti galaxies- a myth or a reality?</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> Space Light Vol 4 P7-13; 1998). </span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">Defining a region of mass MR as a typical unit of matter and antimatter According to <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>conventional</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> standard model or <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Big Bang model of the universe, there were small excess of baryon particles </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">(~1 in 10<sup>9</sup>) over anti particles in <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>early stage of evolution of universe. At that time the thermal energy</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> “KT” exceeded the rest energy mpc<sup>2</sup> of baryon particles. It was to the excess amount of KT, for that </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">we see the present existence of matter in the universe. So as <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>thermal energy dropped bellow mc<sup>2</sup>, </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">the baryons and anti baryons started annihilated and there leaving just excess of baryons intact. </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">Let us now consider a model of universe that was initially filled up with the thermal radiations. </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">Its expansion was described by the scale factor R (t) which behaved approximately like t <sup>-1/2</sup> </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">while the temperature varied like R<sup>-1</sup>. For early stage of the universe, effect of space curvature was</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> negligible. It was known in <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>history of such a model, Our<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bhattacharya model of universe <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>can now </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>be divided in to several periods according to content of thermal radiation. The Hadronic (KT≥100 mev),</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> Leptonic (KT≥ 1mev) and Radiative (KT≥300K). Super imposed on division, on evolution of baryons, </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">we have to consider also other periods. The separation period (KT≥350Mev), annihilation period </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">(KT≥25Kev) and coalescence period (T>300K). There was some interest in 1970s regarding the</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> existence of the antimatter in the universe. Stiegman. G in 1969</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> ( <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/224477a0"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Stiegman. G. – Nature Vol224; P447; 1969</span></a> </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/224477a0"><b><span style="font-size: 9.0pt; letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">Antimatter, Galactic Nuclei and Theories of the</span></b></a></span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/224477a0"><b><span style="font-size: 9.0pt; letter-spacing: 0.1pt;"> Universe: Speculation on the Nature of the Nuclei of Galaxies</span></b></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt; letter-spacing: 0.1pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;">) showed that if the space time </span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">were filled with equal mixture of matter and antimatter then gamma ray flux that resulted from </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">nucleon and anti nucleon annihilation would be far above the observed limit. But as<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>per </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">Rupak Bhattacharya, Ritwick Bhattacharya<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and Pranab kumar bhattacharya there were </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">much possibilities that matter and antimatter existed quite separately in large regions </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">consisting solely of one characteristic type, perhaps in the form of galaxies and anti galaxies</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> (Bhattacharjee Rupak, Bhattacharya Ritwick <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/18-QR8xcIf2PuCpinhJKI9X3bH4b5Aj9swClfqBKSwOk/edit"><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;">Bhattacharya</span><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;"> </span><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;">Pranab</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> et al) separation, </span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">one can assume that a process probably existed in <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>early Big Bang model. This process could </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">however separated matter and antimatter into contiguous regions at some early epoch of Big Bang.</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> We can also assume that the regions remain separated until and after decoupling would prevent</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> collision between them, owing to <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>effect of radiation. After decoupling, the material contained in </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">several such regions started to collapse and coalesce. The collapse and coalescence led to an </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">annihilation of particles from regions to anti regions. The rate at which coalescence occurred,</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> depended on the scale of density fluctuation. Defining a blob of mass MB, as the largest commonly</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> occurring density fluctuation, existing at decompleing, we know from galaxy forming theory</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;">[How galaxies form ] that the minimum mass of the blob was ~<sup>107</sup>M</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;">◎</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> jeans mass. It is also</span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> well known that any gravitational bound group of blob will eventually undergo collapse. </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">But due to <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/topics_bigbang_expanding.html"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">expansion of the universe,</span></a> the collapse would not proceed rapidly until the density</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> contracted. The collision cross section for blob contained in such group became very high, once </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">collapse set in. So, if both matter and antimatter were present in early universe, one must expect </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">a considerable amount of annihilation to occur at the time of collapse. So there must be a separation</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> period for matter and antimatter as per Rupak Bhattacharya. In the separation period <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>particles </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">and antiparticles [Quarks and antiquarks / r particles and Anti r particles/ Neutrinos and</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> anti neutrinos/ Gluons and anti gluons Higgs and anti Higgs particles ] separated spatially</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> as a consequence of their statistical repulsion. </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="file:///E:/webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:1k64yI7cm9MJ:https://journalofscience.org/index.php/GJSFR/article/download/1964/1825/+&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in"><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;">This was initially induced by fluctuation</span></a></span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> (Bhattacharjee Rupak and Bhattacharya Pranab Kumar bhattacharya Upasana<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>et al -</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-size: 9.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:1k64yI7cm9MJ:https://journalofscience.org/index.php/GJSFR/article/download/1964/1825/+&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-size: 9.0pt;">The Cosmic Web, the Seed of Galaxies- Are Also Made of Warm Intergalactic Medium(WHIM) </span></a></span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:1k64yI7cm9MJ:https://journalofscience.org/index.php/GJSFR/article/download/1964/1825/+&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in"><span lang="EN-IN" style="font-size: 9.0pt;">and Dark Energy?</span><span lang="EN-IN" style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-IN" style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;">Global Journal of Science Frontier Research: APhysics and Space Science </span></a></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:1k64yI7cm9MJ:https://journalofscience.org/index.php/GJSFR/article/download/1964/1825/+&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in"><span lang="EN-IN" style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;">Volume 17 Issue 1 Version 1.0 Year 2017</span></a></span><span style="color: black; font-size: 9.0pt;">)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></pre>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="background: white; border: solid #C8CCD1 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt;">
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;">). One can compute the size as “δ,” as the individual condensation containing an excess of nucleon</span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> and anti- nucleon reached during 10<sup>~5 S</sup> of the period. The total baryonic number in that period was</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> 10<sup>28</sup>. Near the end of separation period <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>universe was filled up with emulsion of nucleons and anti </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">nucleons with a topical size δ=3x10<sup>~4</sup>c.m. The next came annihilation period. When temperature </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">fell below the critical temperature (T) the particles and antiparticles [quarks and anti quarks </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">r anti r<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>] started to annihilate. The annihilate process was then controlled by diffusion so that</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> densities D and N (Nucleons) and N-(anti nucleons) satisfy the equation as given below </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">δΝ/δΤ=DV-2N-αN N-, δN-/δΤ=δV-N-αNN- (== Bhattacharjee Rupak ==). At the end of this period</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> a typical fraction of 10<sup> ~8</sup> or more nucleon survived. They were still in the form of emulsion </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">with a typical size of 105cm and with a typical mass of 10<sup>10</sup> gram( 100,000,000 000, kilogram)</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> within a sphere of radius. This was however very far from a galactic mass. During annihilation </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;">the process first gave birth chiefly to</span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:InLF6-701tUJ:https://www.slideshare.net/STMJournals1/research-reviews-journal-of-space-science-technology-vol-5-issue-3+&cd=14&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in"><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;"> pions</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:InLF6-701tUJ:https://www.slideshare.net/STMJournals1/research-reviews-journal-of-space-science-technology-vol-5-issue-3+&cd=14&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in"><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;">and through their decay to high-energy photons, </span></a></span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:InLF6-701tUJ:https://www.slideshare.net/STMJournals1/research-reviews-journal-of-space-science-technology-vol-5-issue-3+&cd=14&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in"><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;">electrons, positrons, and neutrinos successively</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;">. The transfer of momentum by photons and</span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> electrons produces an annihilation pressure at boundary between matter and antimatter. </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">To find the behavior of matter and antimatter, which were probably in contact through a</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> common boundary, the effect of high-energy photons and leptons was a dominant feature, </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">because these particles exerted a very strong pressure and kept the heating system on.</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> Radiative pressure was very dominant, so that pressure due to heating tended to balance</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> annihilation. With the possible exception of cosmic gumma rays, observation yielded </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">essentially no information on the relative amount of matter and antimatter beyond our solar system.</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> What the observation told us was that matter and antimatter are rarely ,if ever found together.</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> What was the mechanism that matter and antimatter were then separated?. Consider a gas of </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">proton, antiproton, electron and positron, which is sufficiently diluted and then annihilation can</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> not be neglected there. In general, such a gas will be situated in a magnetic field say “B” , in a </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">Gravitational field say “G” and in a electromagnetic field of flux “F”. Each of <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>fields will then be</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> assumed static and homogeneous. In particular length scale for variation in “B” must be large</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> enough that particle drifts arising from magnetic in homogenetics are also negligible. </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">The protons and antiprotons will be much more strongly influenced by Gravitational field than</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> by Radiation field. As well as spiraling around the magnetic line of forces the heavy particles </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">will therefore have a drift velocity Vh= mPxgxB/qB<sup>2 </sup>,where mP is the proton mass, q is the particle</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> charge,.[Bhattacharjee Rupak & Bhattacharya Pranab Kumar – Does the Universe contain also</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> anti galaxies- a myth or a reality- Space Light; Vol4 P7-13;1998] .Because of their small mass, </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">and larger scattering cross section, the electrons and positrons will feel much weaker Gravitational</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> force due to radiation pressure. It is however to be noted that just electric current through gas does</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> not heavily result in separation of charges, and the opposed drift of matter need not produce an </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">actual matter- antimatter separation. On the other hand , matter and antimatter in an isolated </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">cloud or in extended medium, with an appropriate field configuration should achieve some degree</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> of separation. Because , proton and antiproton ,electron and positron fluxes will not be equal in</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> general. There will be some separation of charge leading to an electrical field “ E “ and E x B drift.</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> As E x B drift increases, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>heavy particles acquire an inertia which tends to remove the original</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> difference between proton and antiproton and electron and positron fluxes. </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2012/02/where-went-anti-matter-our-theory.html?m=0"><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;">So the big question</span></a></span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2012/02/where-went-anti-matter-our-theory.html?m=0"><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;"> appeared before us What happened to these antimatter</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;">?. After the Plank epoch, when the age of the</span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> universe was t ≤10<sup>-43S</sup> and <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>temperature of the universe was T≥10<sup>9</sup>Gev , we can be sure enough , </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">that the interactions between the matter and the antimatter at their first quark level or Between </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">r+/ r_ [R particle level] became unimportant. This was because of that rate for gravitational </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">interaction( <a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2012/02/what-is-gravity-it-force-generated-by.html">with Graviton particles</a> ) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>was much less then expansion rate of the universe. </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">Although the interactions between matter and antimatter particles kept each of them </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">separately in a thermal equilibrium and thus probably <b>Two worlds were created.</b> </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><b>These Two world did not feel each other’s existence at very microscopic level.</b></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">
</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> During the primordial nucleo synthesis of the early universe, which started ~1S after the</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;"> initial Big Bang moment, the yield of the Big Bang </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/nasa-s-hubble-finds-universe-is-expanding-faster-than-expected"><span style="background: white; font-size: 9.0pt;">depended on the expansion rate of the Universe</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-size: 9.0pt;">.</span></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> The expansion density PT= P+Ps by R0/R= [(δπGN/3)(P+Ps)]1/2 where P and Ps= density of matter</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> and Antimatter, R= Cosmic scale factors. During this early epoch the universe was radiation </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">dominated with P=g (π<sup>2</sup>/30)T4 where g counts the effective number of degrees of freedom </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">particles (Rupak Bhattacharjee). The temperature of the particle world and that of anti particle</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> world were not the same. The inflation occurred in the two worlds in both the sector but not</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> necessarily simultaneously. The inflation involved was a random event in the nucleation of a </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">bubble or in the formation of a fluctuation region. At <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>beginning of <a href="https://wmap.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/bb_cosmo_infl.html">the inflation the universe</a></span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> was in false vacuum state for both the worlds. The bubble nucleated for one world, first say</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> for antimatter world then matter world . As the bubble grew exponentially in physical size, </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">both the temperature of matter and antimatter decreased exponentially. At this time the ratio</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> of entropy remained constant. When the antiparticle vacuum energy was converted into radiation,</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> the antiparticle temperature raised and entropy decreased. Eventually a bubble of fluctuation </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">region formed for the matter world within the antimatter bubble. During the second phase of </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">inflation, new bubble grew exponentially. When the vacuum energy of ordinary matter world </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">converted into radiation, the temperature of particle world raised to a temperature, which was</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> exponentially larger than the temperature of the antiparticle world. Thus the entropy was reduced</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> further. To an exponentially small value and the matter dominated the visible universe. According</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> to Big Bang model of Universe, there was small excess of matter then antimatter (~1 in 10<sup>9</sup>) in the</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> early stage of evolution, when the thermal energy KT exceeded the rest of energy mpc<sup>2</sup>. The baryons</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> and anti baryons annihilated and then leaving just excess of baryon intact. From a fit of </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">nucleon-nucleon scattering theory, the evidence of π, η7, ω, ρ, and mesons can divide the </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">nucleon and anti nucleon scattering amplitude. There are bound states of nucleon and</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> anti nucleon pairs, which can be identified with mesons π, ρ, ω, and η7. Such a situation</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> in which some particles appear as bound states and act as agent for Special Forces. </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"><a href="https://journals.aps.org/pr/abstract/10.1103/PhysRev.187.345">Dashen .Roger </a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Dashen. R <a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2012/02/where-went-anti-matter-our-theory.html?m=0">Physics Review-Vol187; P345; 1969</a>) summarized a basic</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> formula relating to Gibb’s potential Ω to it’s value Ω0 for free particles and to </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">collision matrix –S Ω =Ω0 -KT/2π∫δEc-E/KT trace [clogs (E) ee-∑u1n1]. </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">Rupak , Ritwick and Pranab Bhattacharya’s theory is a separate theory from</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> conventional <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9705440">CP violation theory of Shakarov</a>. Bhattacharya’s Model of universe </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">put two big questions. What was before the Big Bang? What happened from 0.00001 second</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> after Big bang Plank’s time of 10<sup>~34</sup> seconds. Present Big Bang is accepted at 10<sup>~32</sup> second. </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">The most recent report 2006 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe">WAMP(CMB)</a> cosmology shows glows of Big Bang, when the </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">universe was 3,80,000 years old and universe had a temperature then 3000c </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">The R particle –a zero mass particle also probably gives a solution for the age of universe</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> in accelerating universe. So long a not solved question before the physicist was whether </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">the nucleosynthesis was baryonic or non-baryonic in quark hadrons phase transition of big bang .</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">universe always suffered a short fall of ordinary matter constituents of proton, neutron & electron. </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">The R particles- a zero mass particle theory helps in the concept that beyond the horizon or boundary </span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;">of the observable universe there are energy particles and favours the concept of ever expanding universe</span></pre>
<pre style="background: white; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #C8CCD1 .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt 12.0pt; padding: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 9.0pt;"> from its creation moment at big bang like event</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></pre>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rupak struggled
and struggled of all kinds of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>economical
odds he faced throughout his life became totally introverts <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>with schizoid<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>mood<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>disorder(DSM4) took all
painstaking efforts<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to be passionate for
cosmos or universe<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and to theoretize
that the our <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>universe<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>was created<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>in<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a singularity called Big Bang
Epoch<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>as </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2018/07/the-ten-biggest-but-yet-today.html"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">multiple
bubble universe ( Today’s which is known as<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Multi universe )<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and of multiple
bubbles<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>some bubbles collapsed , some
persisted<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and as such one of
bubbles<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>is ourobservable universe and
thus there are multiple universes<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>like
ours are<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and the best way to move from
one universe to another universe are warm holes or black holes</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> and his concept was published first<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>at BAD Astronomy<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and Universe Today forum<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>now<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?72845-What-was-Before-the-Big-Bang-An-Identical-Reversed-Universe"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cosmoquest
Forum under Title-: “ What was before the big bang ? An Identical Reversed
universe</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">” ? followed by
publication <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">journal Research & Reviews: Journal
of Space Science & Technology</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ISSN:
2321-2837(online), ISSN: 2321-6506(print) Volume 5, Issue 1; <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2015 <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The abstract of the article <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>is like that ....”” </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The <a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:1k64yI7cm9MJ:https://journalofscience.org/index.php/GJSFR/article/download/1964/1825/+&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in">Cosmic
Microwave Background Radiation</a> (CMBR) recorded in the 1960s was indelible
proof of the occurrence of the Big Bang. It was the residual heat, the first
rays of light emanating from that explosion, whose wavelength was now stretched
to microwaves. However, cosmologists were baffled by how uniform the map was.
The isotropy gives a hint as to why the Universe is so ordered. <a href="https://www.space.com/33892-cosmic-microwave-background.html">The CMBR is
a sumptuous map</a> that represents indelible proof of the occurrence of the
Big Bang. One can quite easily observe the map’s uniformity implying the
isotropy of the primordial Universe</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Objects reach a temperature equilibrium by
distributing their heat to a nearby object or their surroundings until their
lowered temperature and the recipient’s elevated temperature become equal.
However, the map’s uniformity seems impossible, since accomplishing an
equilibrium between astronomical distances is constrained by the speed of light
— it cannot be achieved instantaneously.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Alan Guth proposed that an equilibrium was quickly
achieved just moments after the Big Bang when the atomic entities were in close
proximity. According to him, the equilibrium was promptly succeeded by an
exponential expansion of the Universe. It bloated in less than a fraction of a
second, assuming the structure we now see. He called this phenomenon inflation.
Inflation doesn’t just beautifully explain how the Big Bang might have
occurred, but it can also explain what might have caused it. According to
inflation, empty space continually experiences tiny random quantum fluctuations
where energized pairs of particles and anti-particles can pop into existence,
as long as they exist for an infinitesimal time until before annihilating
themselves instantaneously. Inflation separates these entities before they are
effaced. However, researchers in the 1980s discovered that inflation is eternal
– the greater-than-light-speed expansion stops in some regions but continues in
others. This hints before <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/who-deserves.html?pageNum_GetGreetings=2&totalRows_GetGreetings=399#greetings" target="_blank"><span style="color: #aa0033;">Rupak Bhattacharya </span></a>and</span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://www.facebook.com/profpranabkr.bhattacharya?fref=mentions"><span style="color: #365899; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ProfPranab Kr Bhattacharya</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> the formation of a grid of
universes or a multiverse that mimics concatenated soap bubbles, where our
Universe is one amongst them, isolated from our neighbors, who elude any
detection. A multiverse implies that inflation creates infinite universes, each
illustrating different properties, all of which can be traced to mere chance.
Why then are the laws of nature so generously suspended in our favor? A little
dab of misfortune and the constants would have assumed a different value,
debarring our existence!</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
</span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2018/07/the-ten-biggest-but-yet-today.html"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Schrödinger Cat's Experiment's Interpretation
and Parallel Universe or Multiple Universes</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/who-deserves.html?pageNum_GetGreetings=2&totalRows_GetGreetings=399#greetings" target="_blank"><span style="color: #aa0033; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rupak Bhattacharya</span></a></span><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1, Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya*, Upasana
Bhattacharya, Ritwik Bhattacharya, Rupsa Bhattacharya, Ayishee Mukherjee, Dalia
Mukherjee, Hindol Banerjee, Debasis Mukherjee5, Ronok
Vyas6 * Research & Reviews: Journal of Space Science &
Technology</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ISSN: 2321-2837(online), ISSN:
2321-6506(print) Volume 5, Issue 1</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Quantum
mechanics provides us most fundamental descriptions of our most early universe,</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">but there is a long-standing debate amongst theoretical
physicists about what all these</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">mathematics really mean in real
world? The present three-dimensional (3D) universe, we</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">humans experience daily since our birth, is probably just one of
an enormous numbers of</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">essentially classical worlds, and
all quantum phenomena arise from a universal force of</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">repulsions that prevented many universes (Multiverse) from
having identical physical</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">configurations like ours.
Probabilities arise only because of our human ignorance as to which</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">in our world an observer occupies
a position in space time. This picture is all that is needed to</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">explain
bizarre quantum effects such as particles that can tunnel through solid
barriers and</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">wave <b>behaviour</b> in
double-slit experiments or in a warm hole. Our many-interacting-universes</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">approach hinges on our assumption that interactions between
deterministically evolving</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">worlds cause all quantum effects.
Each world is simply the position of particles in three dimensional</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">space time, and each would evolve
according to Newton’s laws, if there were no</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">inter world interactions. A surprising feature of human approach
was that the formulation</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">contains nothing that corresponds
to the mysterious quantum wave functions, except in the</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">formal mathematical limit in which the number of worlds becomes
infinitely large.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conversely, Newtonian mechanics
corresponds to the opposite limit of just one world. Thus,</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">our approach should incorporate both classical and quantum
theory. As few as two</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">interacting worlds can result in
quantum like effects, such as tunneling through a barrier.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Many interacting worlds theory (MIW) explains that rather than
standing apart, an infinite</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">number of universes in the early
time shared the same space and time as ours. They show that</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">the theory can explain quantum mechanical effects while leaving
open the choice of theory to</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">explain the universe at large
scales. This is a fascinating new variant of multiverse theory</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">that, in a sense, creates not just a doppelganger of everyone
but an infinite number of them all</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">overlaying each other in the same
space and time. The fine tuning of parameters required to</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">reproduce our present day universe suggests that our universe
may simply be a region within</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">an eternally inflating
super-region. Many other regions beyond our observable universe might</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">have existed in earlier times
with each such universe governed by a different set of physical</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">parameters and laws. Collision between these regions, if they
occurred, should have left</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">signatures of anisotropy in the
cosmic microwave background (CMB) but have not been seen</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">yet. We assess different mechanisms for this residual emission
and conclude that although</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">there is a 30% probability that
noise fluctuations may cause foregrounds to fall within 3σ of</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">the excess, there is less than a 0.5% probability that
foregrounds can explain all the excess.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A plausible explanation is that the collision of our universe
with an alternate universe, whose</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">baryon to photon ratio is a
factor of </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "cambria math" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">∼</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4500 larger than ours, could produce enhanced</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hydrogen Paschen-series emission at the epoch of recombination.
Future spectral mapping</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">and deeper observations at 100
and 217 GHz are needed to mitigate systematics arising from</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">unknown galactic foregrounds and to confirm this unusual
hypothesis. After careful analysis</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">of the spectrum of the CMB, Chary
et al. found a signal that was about 4500x brighter than it</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">should have been, based on the number of protons and electrons.
Scientists believe that this</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">existed
in the very early universe. Indeed, this particular signal, an emission line
that arose</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">from the formation of atoms
during the era of recombination is more consistent with a</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">universe whose ratio of matter particles to photons is about 65x
greater than our own. There</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">s a 30% chance that this
mysterious signal is just noise, and not really</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hitherto, the scientific
community has reached a consensus that the Big Bang erupted from a singularity,
a point where all the laws of physics break down, rendering only crude accounts
of possibilities beyond it. Right now, without a Theory of Everything, a theory
that would hopefully unite classical and particle physics, science can only
beat around the bush; it cannot predict without any uncertainty how our
Universe began</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 12.0pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">His concept in the year 1995 that our universe when started
in<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the Big bang Singularity at Plancks
epoch it was started from the Zero mass Zero volume and zero time. So a Zero rest
mass particle was required<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>at that very
time<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and some other <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>particles actually gave<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the origin of the mass<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in the higg’s field<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and he named the particle<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in the family of the neutrinos particles as “Rupak
Particles( r particles and anti r particles)” and published first <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>as comment </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://www.nature.com/news/2011/110922/full/news.2011.554.html"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">in nature journal</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> in 2011<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>then<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>at the </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/the-lay-scientist/2011/sep/23/1#comment-12559842"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">Gu</span><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">a</span><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">rdian</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> and
then at<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.openscienceonline.com/journal/archive2?journalId=703&paperId=1548"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">International journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics and Space Science of
Open Science journal Group USA;</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">(
viewer till December 2018 =22, 650) in 2015<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>and in </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://www.slideshare.net/STMJournals1/research-reviews-journal-of-space-science-technology-vol-5-issue-3"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">Research and Review
Journal of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Space science and Technology
of STM journal Group USA,</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> in the article <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://www.slideshare.net/STMJournals1/research-reviews-journal-of-space-science-technology-vol-5-issue-3"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">Where From mass came in
the universe? Did the mass originated from a zero rest mass p[articles in higgs
field</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and he told
that </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://www.pubfacts.com/detail/pub/21932/The-Higggs-boson-is-not-zero-rest-mass-particle-mass-lessand-decays-into-bottom-quarks-and-anti-quar"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">higgs particles are not
the massless particles in the universe</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> and there are many types
of higgs particles<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?80592-Symmetry-or-Breaking-the-symmetry-what-was-the-laws-of-nature"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">possibility of
supersymmetry and<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>susi particles</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">
at </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?80592-Symmetry-or-Breaking-the-symmetry-what-was-the-laws-of-nature"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">cosmoquest<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>forum in 2008</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We scientists know that matter
is made up atoms, and atoms are made of protons, neutrons, and electrons. And
we recognize that protons and neutrons are made up of smaller particles called
quarks. Would probing deeper uncover particles even more fundamental? We don’t
know for sure. We do have something known as the standard model of particle
physics, which is excellent at explaining the interactions among subatomic
particles. The standard model has also been used to expect the existence of
previously unknown particles. The last particle to be found this way was the</span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://home.cern/about/updates/2018/06/higgs-boson-comes-out-top" target="_blank"><span style="background: white; color: #aa0033; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Higgs
boson</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, which LHC researchers observed in 2012</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> But according to me
there’s a hitch. “The standard model doesn’t give an explanation for
everything,” “It doesn’t provide an explanation for why the Higgs
particle actually exists. It doesn’t explain in detail why the
Higgs boson has still the mass and decays that it does </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In
fact, the Higgs turned out to be a heck of a lot less massive than predicted —
theory had held that it would be about “a quadrillion times heavier than it’s
far,” The mysteries don’t end there. Atoms are known to be electrically neutral
— the positive charge of the protons is cancelled out by the negative charge of
the electrons — but as to why this is so,, “Nobody knows. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Here may be some
explanation by us "where From mass came in the Universe? did the mass
originate from a zero rest mass particle in Higgs field "Published in
Research and review journal of Space science and technology VOl 5 Issue 3 2016
URL </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://www.slideshare.net/STMJournals1/research-reviews-journal-of-space-science-technology-vol-5-issue-3" target="_blank"><span style="color: #365899; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">https://www.slideshare.net/…/research-reviews-journal-of-sp…</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2] The Cosmic Web, the Seed of Galaxies- Are Also Made
of<br />
Warm Intergalactic Medium(WHIM) and Dark Energy? Global Journal of Science
Frontier Research: A<br />
Physics and Space Science Volume 17 Issue 1 Version 1.0 Year 2017<br />
URL </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://globaljournals.org/GJSFR.../E-Journal_GJSFR_%28A%29_Vol_17_Issue_1.pdf" target="_blank"><span style="color: #365899; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">https://globaljournals.org/…/E-Journal_GJSFR_%28A%29_Vol_17…</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://globaljournals.org/GJSFR_Volume17/E-Journal_GJSFR_%28A%29_Vol_17_Issue_1.pdf" target="_blank"><span style="color: #365899; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">https://globaljournals.org/…/E-Journal_GJSFR_%28A%29_Vol_17…</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4] The cosmic Web, the seed of galaxies- are also made
of Warm Intergalactic Medium(WHIM) and Dark energy?<br />
</span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?117579-The-cosmic-Web-the-seed-of-galaxies-are-made-of-Warm-Intergalactic-Medium(WHIM)-an" target="_blank"><span style="color: #365899; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php…</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
5] Where From the mass came in the Universe ? did the mass Came from a zero
rest mass particle in the higgs field?<br />
URL </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://issuu.com/stmpublications/docs/research___reviews_journal_of_space" target="_blank"><span style="color: #365899; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">https://issuu.com/…/docs/research___reviews_journal_of_space</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">6 ] </span><span lang="EN-GB"><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1406.1004" target="_blank"><span style="color: #365899; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">https://arxiv.org/abs/1406.1004</span></a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 12.0pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"><o:p> </o:p></span></h3>
<h3 style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 12.0pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The most Spectacular hypothesis<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>he published that faster than light particles
( FTL particles)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>existed in the universe<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and this particles he named “ </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://chadorzel.com/principles/2011/09/24/faster-than-a-speeding-photon/#comment-43374"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">tachyon</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>he first published in<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><a href="http://archive.is/2cj9">Nature journal as
comment</a> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in 2011 ( comment no# 27107
)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>f</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">ollowed by in journal of </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://chadorzel.com/principles/2011/09/24/faster-than-a-speeding-photon/#comment-43374"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">Uncertainty Principal in
2011</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">
as comment and concluded<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>that </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">might we consider a tachyon
particle with imaginary zero mass moving through the real part of space time at
a speed greater than that of light. Tachyons can then provide the link between
past and future and possible time travel and travel through black hole in other
universe<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and in 2015 he published in
International journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics and Space Science of Open
Science journal Group USA under title </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.openscienceonline.com/journal/archive2?journalId=703&paperId=1548"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">Tachyon- Faster than Light
Particle Exist in Our Universe or an Imaginary Mathematical Particle</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> . <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By the Tachyon<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>particles and tachyonic energy<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>he
told time travel is possible<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and
intergalactic travel are also possible with help of tachyonic energy.<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">( abstract<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #666666; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;"><a href="http://www.openscienceonline.com/journal/archive2?journalId=703&paperId=1548">For
the relativistic formula for the kinetic energy, ordinary subatomic particles
are confined in an infinite well of velocity of Light [c]. So it may be however
considered that Faster than Light Particle (FTL) speed phenomenon may exist in
this Universe. On the other hand to day even physicists and particle physicist
do not consider that Faster than light particles (FTL) exists. The FTL particle
is called “Tachyons” the name coined by G. Feinberg [8] in 1969. There had been
many search by various experiments for FTL but most of them showed negative for
their existences. It may be that light particles created inside the atomic
nuclei which has the nonzero rest mass less than 10-32 kg has the probability
of almost unity to transfer into FTL. The electron neutrinos and muon neutrinos
also have been observed as FTL state but they have mass and if the rest mass of
the neutrinos emitted in proton smashing at speed of light is less than 10-32
then it may be travelling as FTL and there is possibility of existences of
Tachyons</a><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #666666; font-family: "arial" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 7.5pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His Research on <a href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2012/07/what-is-gravity-is-it-force-generated.html?m=0">What
is Gravity </a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>as titled<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><a href="https://www.facebook.com/note.php?note_id=401404001719">What is Gravity?
Is it a force Generated by a Zero mass particle ! If it is a force then why we
can not measure Gravity or speed of Gravity? <span lang="EN-US" style="background: #ffffe5; color: #333333; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none;"> was
Published first <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>at </span> </a></span><a href="https://www.facebook.com/note.php?note_id=401404001719"><span lang="EN" style="background: #ffffe5; color: #333333; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none;"><span style="mso-field-code: " HYPERLINK \0022http\:\/\/www\.extremeastronomy\.com\/index\0022 ";"><u><span style="color: #aa0033;">Extreme Astronomy</span></u></span>.com <span style="mso-field-code: " HYPERLINK \0022http\:\/\/www\.extremeastronomy\.com\/blogs\/\0022 \\o \0022Return to Community Blog List\0022 ";"><u><span style="color: #aa0033;">Community Blog List</span></u></span> <span style="mso-field-code: " HYPERLINK \0022http\:\/\/www\.extremeastronomy\.com\/blogs\/page__type__all\0022 \\o \0022Return to List Blogs\0022 ";"><u><span style="color: #aa0033;">List Blogs</span></u></span></span><span lang="EN" style="background: #ffffe5; color: #333333; text-decoration: none;"><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; orphans: 2; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"> </span> and then in MIT News in June 15, 2016 as comments <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "serif"; font-size: 18.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></a></h3>
<h3 style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 12.0pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h3>
<h3 style="margin-bottom: 3.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 12.0pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">His research<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>contributions<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>in theoretical physics<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>as mostly
mathematical calculation, in Astronomy <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>well have been critically examined by many
experts<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in foreign countries and by foreign
authors<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>but it could not be un reeled in
his real life in west Bengal state or at Sodepur his residence <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>or at Kolkata<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Rupak<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>as if wedded with
physics<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>published his other
articles<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>at journal Physics org; <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>( a most prestigious journal of international
organization of Physics called IOP)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://phys.org/news/2009-05-rare-radio-supernova-nearby-galaxy.html"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">on<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>rare
supernova and its mechanism of explosion</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> ,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://phys.org/news/2006-01-evidence-dark-galaxy.html"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">Existence of dark galaxies by dark matter</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> on </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?117579-The-cosmic-Web-the-seed-of-galaxies-are-made-of-Wa&styleid=3"><span style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">cosmic web as seeds of galaxies<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>first at <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>cosmoquest forum</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> in 2011 following that in </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://globaljournals.org/GJSFR.../E-Journal_GJSFR_(A)_Vol_17_Issue_1.pdf"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">Global Journals of
Science and Frontier Research</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> ( A )Physics and Space
Science, USA,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/2010/03/01/the-greatest-story-ever-told-4#comment-1493786"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">where went Anti matter
our new theory<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in2010 at journal<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Science Blogs of <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>most prestigious AAAS.org</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">
as comment<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?107287-Where-Went-the-Anti-matter"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">in cosmoquest forum in
the same year</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> and next </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2018/07/the-ten-biggest-but-yet-today.html"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">at blogs of Prof Pranab
kumar Bhattacharya</span></a><a href="http://archive.is/XGs2Y#selection-753.1-753.60"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">. He published evolution of
spiral galaxies</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> in 2009 ; on </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/science-ticker/jet-milky-way%E2%80%99s-giant-black-hole-shows-itself#comment-1269582178"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;">Black hole named S Agittarius A<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in
2013</span><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>at Science News<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>American Society for Science and public in
physics worlds<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However his valuable all publications as armature
theoretical physicist<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>with masters in
mathematics could not secure him a service in<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>school or colleges<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to maintain
his livelihood and he led his early life<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>as a peon for two years (1995-1997 when took his masters degree ) in a
private company on daily basis followed by as a night guards and then security
guards in a Kolkata based Private company with very mere salary at those periods.
To cope up with needs of family members in inflated economy of the state and
local area sodepur and huge unemployment problems in west Bengal , he took
up<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>additional jobs as private tutors<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in primary class followed by secondary higher
secondary students in locality particularly of poor families<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and many of his students became successful as
engineers, or Doctors, or managements<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>even from IITs <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All these economic
suppressions,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>struggles, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>poverty, negligence, non recognition he moved
to severe mental depression, psyzophrenia ,attempted suicide<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>from 1999 and had to take Central nervous
system depressents medications , Antipsychotic drugs, lithium, Resperpine, SSRI
followed by valporic acids for long years together (1999-2013) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><br /></span></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , serif; font-size: 9pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> <span style="color: red;">C</span></span><span style="color: red; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><u>opy Right Declaration</u></span><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , serif; font-size: 9pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-small;">This article is free for any comments , publications at any daily news paper by reporters/ editors of daily news papers when and if approved by editorial board, in any languages including in Bengalee daily news papers, except all the scientific contents in details on cosmos, universe multi universe, Tachyons, particle physics, theoretical physics, all mathematical calculations, equations, pictures in the article provided and in the all those links of published papers provided with this article which remain in copy right of Professor Dr <a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/18-QR8xcIf2PuCpinhJKI9X3bH4b5Aj9swClfqBKSwOk/edit#heading=h.qlhzcyjk46mb" target="_blank">Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD ( Calcutta university) FIC path, WBMES u</a>nder strict IPR(Intellectual Property Right ) Copy Right Acts sections- 307/ 306/301/3D/107/1012/ RDF and Protect Intellectual Property Right ACT of USA-2012. Don't try to infringe, to avoid huge civil/criminal proceedings in IPR Court: </span><span style="font-family: "bookman old style" , serif; font-size: 9pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span><span style="color: #111111; font-family: "bookman old style" , serif; font-size: 9pt; font-weight: normal; text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h3>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #111111; font-family: "bookman old style" , "serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; font-weight: normal; text-transform: uppercase;"><o:p> </o:p></span></h3>
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Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-23541139386081731742018-07-26T02:57:00.001-07:002023-02-14T11:37:03.117-08:00The Ten Biggest but yet today unanswered questions in highest level of Physics to win a Nobel Prize in Physics I may assure.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/1iyRkGh4GC7PWhiUOKdbcFhCZzHaln_KJ0isi52nQYm0/edit" target="_blank"><b> Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya </b></a><br />
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<a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/who-deserves.html?pageNum_GetGreetings=2&totalRows_GetGreetings=399#greetings" target="_blank">https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/who-deserves.html?pageNum_GetGreetings=2&totalRows_GetGreetings=399#greetings</a></div>
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If Isaac Newton suddenly popped out of a time machine, he’d be delighted to see how far physics had come. Things that have been deeply mysterious some centuries ago are actually taught in freshman physics classes (the composition of stars is one appropriate example).</div>
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Newton would be rather shocked to see enormous experiments like the big Hadron Collider (LHC) in Switzerland — </div>
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<span style="clear: left; color: #1d2129; display: inline; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;">However once he was up to speed, Newton could no doubt applaud what current physics has accomplished — from the discovery of the nature of light in the 19th Century to determining the structure of the atom within the 20th Century to last year’s discovery of gravitational waves </span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieV_j8rZFn-H7ZCIhYzpi6ttXewk3mHxHT2xZkS9KFPNnDOdVSlf6XLi9SLKAE-MrjDQgCnZW5kVCbuUxSWycnTNT-SDjiZ4quyvDE8aovn9bVy44xxFi2ORclcVOJGz3fAWKaTb7PlKA/s1600/LIGO.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="216" data-original-width="233" height="185" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieV_j8rZFn-H7ZCIhYzpi6ttXewk3mHxHT2xZkS9KFPNnDOdVSlf6XLi9SLKAE-MrjDQgCnZW5kVCbuUxSWycnTNT-SDjiZ4quyvDE8aovn9bVy44xxFi2ORclcVOJGz3fAWKaTb7PlKA/s200/LIGO.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
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.And yet physicists nowadays are the first to admit they don’t have all the answers. “There are basic facts about the universe that we’re ignorant of,” as we considered<br />
How does LHC prove there isn't higgs particle?<br />
<a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" data-lynx-uri="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fforum.cosmoquest.org%2Fshowthread.php%3F112776-How-does-LHC-prove-there-isn-t-higgs-particle&h=AT0cidEsZ0h2kstyXtyh7QzuJEbnVN-UsR3SRP24oPquxkwgpRAkqhe1gYn2YmGZPBnuhuzi7CB7jfdgiSi3w_lUM_N_1AKoHn-HwA8Fh5hdCQ2GE-01905-LQ44TpXRS0NvwHPL597Si7xa-vuHuw4" href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?112776-How-does-LHC-prove-there-isn-t-higgs-particle" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php…</a></div>
and possibly perturbed to study that his theory of gravity have been superseded by one dreamed up by some fellow named Einstein. Quantum mechanics would possibly strike him as weird, though today’s scientists feel the same way.<br />
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">2] </span><b><span style="color: blue;">What is matter made of?</span></b><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">We scientists know that matter is made up atoms, and atoms are made of protons, neutrons, and electrons. And we recognize that protons and neutrons are made up of smaller particles called quarks. Would probing deeper uncover particles even more fundamental? We don’t know for sure. We do have something known as the standard model of particle physics, which is excellent at explaining the interactions among subatomic particles. The standard model has also been used to expect the existence of previously unknown particles. The last particle to be found this way was the<a href="https://home.cern/about/updates/2018/06/higgs-boson-comes-out-top" target="_blank"> Higgs boson</a>, which LHC researchers observed in 2012.</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDdq08BWcJgAsY0zICn3aerL4tsQ8sg0raxKdiIB9eMwbhpwAvxw6PC2r6baPteLMFr56f56Rurx7Q0p1iiLJCdQ2rJ8V0kE4gXN6JJSIGcohYYQ99HgcoV_mXjFCLz7VMrSJPz8zt0Ns/s1600/stock-photo-higgs-boson-decay-317288453.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="358" data-original-width="450" height="158" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDdq08BWcJgAsY0zICn3aerL4tsQ8sg0raxKdiIB9eMwbhpwAvxw6PC2r6baPteLMFr56f56Rurx7Q0p1iiLJCdQ2rJ8V0kE4gXN6JJSIGcohYYQ99HgcoV_mXjFCLz7VMrSJPz8zt0Ns/s200/stock-photo-higgs-boson-decay-317288453.jpg" width="200" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgD75-1QcYDoNaDc1KxinrYsXD3RjFIyjfRBsMS2_CQrEvN6S9OOlcJ6LbWkJqx5xFMB4mr4exUra5U3X8SUFKsukFrY6mtzJQZ6QDv-m5JeE9iSKoc38KHhjy6xcA3P-vXuxnetNvlpWk/s1600/particle+physics+higgs.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="431" data-original-width="457" height="188" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgD75-1QcYDoNaDc1KxinrYsXD3RjFIyjfRBsMS2_CQrEvN6S9OOlcJ6LbWkJqx5xFMB4mr4exUra5U3X8SUFKsukFrY6mtzJQZ6QDv-m5JeE9iSKoc38KHhjy6xcA3P-vXuxnetNvlpWk/s200/particle+physics+higgs.jpg" width="200" /></a><span style="color: #1d2129;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">But according to me there’s a hitch. “The standard model doesn’t give an explanation for everything,” “It doesn’t provide an explanation for why the Higgs particle actually exists. It doesn’t explain in detail why the Higgs boson has still the mass and decays that it does </span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">In fact, the Higgs turned out to be a heck of a lot less massive than predicted — theory had held that it would be about “a quadrillion times heavier than it’s far,” The mysteries don’t end there. Atoms are known to be electrically neutral — the positive charge of the protons is cancelled out by the negative charge of the electrons — but as to why this is so,, “Nobody knows. </span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">Here may be some explanation by us "where From mass came in the Universe? did the mass originate from a zero rest mass particle in Higgs field "Published in Research and review journal of Space science and technology VOl 5 Issue 3 2016 URL </span><a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://www.slideshare.net/STMJournals1/research-reviews-journal-of-space-science-technology-vol-5-issue-3" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://www.slideshare.net/…/research-reviews-journal-of-sp…</a></div>
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2] The Cosmic Web, the Seed of Galaxies- Are Also Made of<br />
Warm Intergalactic Medium(WHIM) and Dark Energy? Global Journal of Science Frontier Research: A<br />
Physics and Space Science Volume 17 Issue 1 Version 1.0 Year 2017<br />
URL <a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://globaljournals.org/GJSFR.../E-Journal_GJSFR_%28A%29_Vol_17_Issue_1.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://globaljournals.org/…/E-Journal_GJSFR_%28A%29_Vol_17…</a></div>
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<a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://globaljournals.org/GJSFR_Volume17/E-Journal_GJSFR_%28A%29_Vol_17_Issue_1.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://globaljournals.org/…/E-Journal_GJSFR_%28A%29_Vol_17…</a></div>
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4] The cosmic Web, the seed of galaxies- are also made of Warm Intergalactic Medium(WHIM) and Dark energy?<br />
<a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?117579-The-cosmic-Web-the-seed-of-galaxies-are-made-of-Warm-Intergalactic-Medium(WHIM)-an" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php…</a><br />
5] Where From the mass came in the Universe ? did the mass Came from a zero rest mass particle in the higgs field?<br />
URL <a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://issuu.com/stmpublications/docs/research___reviews_journal_of_space" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://issuu.com/…/docs/research___reviews_journal_of_space</a></div>
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6 ] <a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1406.1004" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://arxiv.org/abs/1406.1004</a><br />
6]</div>
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">3] .</span><b><span style="color: blue;"> Why is gravity so weird?</span></b><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;"> </span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihmYDQ2E56vL4tEr8HHEIHlO5Od0k7V5wuOWCaV_QwGEush8SONu3x18Sx7flFgw9n0fOgc5WZN4QC9HlVRgcjTuc0LzHAP0hhO12RjSsTfDWB2KIOtW9F-1lFwfZ_PrAlkcm0mERXTRI/s1600/quantum+gravity.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="194" data-original-width="259" height="149" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihmYDQ2E56vL4tEr8HHEIHlO5Od0k7V5wuOWCaV_QwGEush8SONu3x18Sx7flFgw9n0fOgc5WZN4QC9HlVRgcjTuc0LzHAP0hhO12RjSsTfDWB2KIOtW9F-1lFwfZ_PrAlkcm0mERXTRI/s200/quantum+gravity.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #1d2129;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><br /></span></span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">No force is more familiar than gravity — it’s what keeps our feet at the ground, after all. And Einstein’s theory of general relativity offers a mathematical method for gravity, describing it as a “warping” of space. But gravity is a thousand billion trillion trillion times weaker than the other three known forces (electromagnetism and the two forms of nuclear forces that operate over tiny distances). According to us </span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">One possibility — speculative at this point — is that in addition to the 3 dimensions of space that we observe each day, there are <a href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/record/23/18/14.html" target="_blank">hidden extra dimensions, perhaps “curled up” in a way that makes them impossible to detect. </a>I<a href="http://web.physics.ucsb.edu/~strings/superstrings/extradim.htm" target="_blank">f these ten extra dimensions exist </a>— and if gravity is able to “leak” into them — it may give an explanation for why gravity appears so weak to us.</span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">“it could be that gravity is as strong as those other forces however that it gets rapidly diluted by spilling out into these other invisible dimensions,” . Some physicists hoped that experiments at the LHC might give a touch of these extra dimensions — but so far, no luck</span><br />
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">Please See the articles published by us What is Gravity? Is it a force Generated by a Zero mass particle ! If it is a force then 1] why we can not measure Gravity or speed of Gravity?</span></div>
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<a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" data-lynx-uri="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Ftotallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com%2F2012%2F07%2Fwhat-is-gravity-is-it-force-generated.html%3Fm%3D0&h=AT2GwJeIyg6Mbm6q8HYwtrmmD5wDepuICT1b5YYgfmSGmMW_hcyaZoMFiYpXzevCJYuJx9SbywsQf8vWIxM43M_vJp38ChP2t_1mgcOpZKSFRnxhKtHQBN127abpNH2-oGbGvrwG3_gO5vqJ2KEjDd8" href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2012/07/what-is-gravity-is-it-force-generated.html?m=0" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/…</a></div>
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2]<a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" data-lynx-uri="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fspacetimehelix.com%2F%23T2&h=AT3yGaUwhHLu8Lj9xnzmkV_H_kWWABkfPGWGnnalAis84iknF4divaJWRjNri7RAW60q48Zl29wQ4q3WlDSK0eoDxWVJrcgriVIppTKv21kUJgBVellD9zd-iHdvByi7x-Bh0mtMMiJ03fgPDKMXCf8" href="http://spacetimehelix.com/#T2" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">http://spacetimehelix.com/#T2</a></div>
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3] <a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" data-lynx-uri="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.mit.edu%2F2016%2Fligo-first-detection-gravitational-waves-0211&h=AT3CZNXBRllIXhLWA1t_yzmXPL84heTaKY2vm2wBnpUHtkQyVE7P4BYVx3-XZuMd2_Hx10rrmRQPRE_urzvpooydh0opxUxLpFlS1PTlA1rmbG8SADJEW0VBcvs-Ajnh_cV8MLnG301otVcPRIEffFY" href="http://news.mit.edu/2016/ligo-first-detection-gravitational-waves-0211" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">http://news.mit.edu/…/ligo-first-detection-gravitational-wa…</a><br />
4] <a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" data-lynx-uri="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.mit.edu%2F2016%2Fligo-first-detection-gravitational-waves-0211&h=AT3jA8zqV2AGKWheIY_JBQ-FKe5DsroSz4RETeQ6BTtjYMVqBrkEJnlL9Pk184GBhJwn_09xh_2t0T9eClsIS7JNgYfOiuEQV6qj4U8GuY4FiBNy2p3AJS-sj6Nn989Z4th0JCZeqPkCes3NmA6X7m4" href="http://news.mit.edu/2016/ligo-first-detection-gravitational-waves-0211" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">http://news.mit.edu/…/ligo-first-detection-gravitational-wa…</a><br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgf-93e0ZdlbUGa12dF2_LvPP_iq-k5uXQbxTnWqJZQIMPAvwDSBMEy-1IsVwN7OsJ9CXmK4_KcGveLS9aCmA__MCDY42ZDwKIezoR8MjcTf4AznydKFnckOGpNy0zh9YKpkzsVO52_yYY/s1600/curled+space+time+1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="268" data-original-width="300" height="178" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgf-93e0ZdlbUGa12dF2_LvPP_iq-k5uXQbxTnWqJZQIMPAvwDSBMEy-1IsVwN7OsJ9CXmK4_KcGveLS9aCmA__MCDY42ZDwKIezoR8MjcTf4AznydKFnckOGpNy0zh9YKpkzsVO52_yYY/s200/curled+space+time+1.jpg" width="200" /></a>5] <a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" data-lynx-uri="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Ftotallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com%2F2013%2F09%2F&h=AT1vbNTZJTTnbYrQYNx9gmT86kZ6VQa5Uf7z_cSRCu7T9pFC_liUN3NfyZ6ikpa6f9ghizwDw9-jNAV7QP2A3HERiLJS0NY6KGIQ348EN7OskCgRGtrzjiyu1rup8tZ5jfYGbfoKezeJiBeLQsnf0Eo" href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2013/09/" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">http://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/…/</a><br />
Please click on Ask a Nobel Laureate with David Gross URL <a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D7nqfxvWhWq4%26lc%3DUgwcnrmE753QbwB1W6R4AaABAg&h=AT01qAPpZEBhzhA9mRnrEKxqbsZe6dVcT5T6bqMliOVC4EizkKm3beR377OHemo8rR1zUsvErExrbR12wJUWUmZOgkIWb4BOd9jIkqXjpk62Avx6AWrVDTs1ggY7bKb4R8fqX09OnltXsEdzsMCCRCA" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://www.youtube.com/watch…</a></div>
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">4] </span><span style="color: blue;"><b>Why does time seem to flow only in one direction?</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">Since Einstein, physicists have thought of space and time as forming a four-dimensional structure known as “space-time.” But space differs from time in some very fundamental ways. In space, we’re free to move about as we wish.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrWeVH5zFJojc0hgq83Yy6sMgrezMo-5x9WOWH3UzDfbvwNM7ZrUL5ATZztyp0Ci4WaO7wTHxLkIWRfrNLUwL7kFxKydHW7vnecqFMcU3QNOAQYMg65xKzJIPeYHcFMsWiZuEuT5Ninzo/s1600/time.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">When it comes to time, we’re really stuck. We grow older, but not younger. And we remember the past, but not the future. Time, unlike space, seems to have a preferred direction — physicists call it the “arrow of time.” </span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">Some physicists suspect that the second law of thermodynamics provides a clue. It states that the entropy of a physical system (roughly, the amount of disorder) rises over time, and physicists think this increase is what gives time its direction.</span></a><br />
<span style="font-size: 14px;">(For example, a broken teacup has more entropy than an intact one — and, sure enough, smashed teacups always seem to arise after intact ones, not before.) </span><span style="font-size: 14px;">Entropy may be rising now because it was lower earlier, but why was it low to begin with? Was the entropy of the universe unusually low 14 billion years ago, when the Big Bang brought it into existence?</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 14px;">For some physicists, including<a href="https://directory.caltech.edu/personnel/carroll" target="_blank"> Caltech’s Sean Carroll</a>, that’s the missing piece of the puzzle. “If you can tell me why the early universe had a low entropy, then I can explain the rest of it,” he says In Whiteson’s view, entropy isn’t the whole story. “To me,” he says, “the deepest part of the question is, why is time so different from space?” (Recent computer simulations seem to show how the asymmetry of time might arise from the fundamental laws of physics, but the work is controversial, and the ultimate nature of time continues to stir passionate debate.) </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 14px;">please read our article </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 14px;">1] Space Time Concept</span><br />
<a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" data-lynx-uri="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Ftotallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com%2F2012%2F03%2Fspace-time-concept.html%3Fm%3D0&h=AT3pyvO_s6dWOo_-IzmLZ-en0Hwxpx38wx06itk1j0SIMnJHlyaGqBXIzm8fIMHbiDkjbJCWDjtzVbcAfAT8zMDMgVBLsOe2wKtxfP6Hgp9QJt7ijFFCYbuy2O03I1ZR2d9TOqrRR6D16n5GMXEGCbg" href="https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/2012/03/space-time-concept.html?m=0" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://totallydrug-resistanttbemergesinindia.blogspot.com/…</a><br />
<span style="font-size: 14px;">2] </span><a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" data-lynx-uri="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.natureworldnews.com%2Farticles%2F6364%2F20140317%2Fripples-in-fabric-of-space-time-observed-from-big-bang-supporting-universe-inflation-theory.htm&h=AT2uO98QWuRLwausASdZE9PPI4Oeu4M2hLjVK-pzJS8eHzRcrFNvnxopQqyOh5Amz1LidFEVi2zn-aINXbnyU_DNqR38MVAhr3N8wS1GIRR17F5vAVNzFsJ2RfMrfw19OH9oPMmgxA6GJ3jtRDYqfwQ" href="https://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/6364/20140317/ripples-in-fabric-of-space-time-observed-from-big-bang-supporting-universe-inflation-theory.htm" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://www.natureworldnews.com/…/ripples-in-fabric-of-spac…</a></div>
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">4. </span><b><span style="color: blue;">Where did all the antimatter go?</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6O4jACWulWDAdrtR60DZTqdqVstLBBm8shq0GeAREL64meqfpJFnFyzinuh8_GjaY0mfxXXYLxEUSUa_TXOmaODjUVaEIA6CpM1owQXMQACsaO1XZJqxsEpOywswiqBlq7W4GSJOaSw4/s1600/curled+space+time+1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="268" data-original-width="300" height="178" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6O4jACWulWDAdrtR60DZTqdqVstLBBm8shq0GeAREL64meqfpJFnFyzinuh8_GjaY0mfxXXYLxEUSUa_TXOmaODjUVaEIA6CpM1owQXMQACsaO1XZJqxsEpOywswiqBlq7W4GSJOaSw4/s200/curled+space+time+1.jpg" width="200" /></a>Antimatter can be more famous in fiction than in real life. At the original star Trek, antimatter reacts with ordinary matter to power the warp drive that propels the United States.</div>
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Enterprise at quicker-than-light velocities. While warp drive is pure fiction, antimatter is very real. We know that for every particle of ordinary matter, it is possible to have an identical particle with the opposite electrical charge. An antiproton is much like a proton, for example, but with a negative charge. The antiparticle corresponding to the negatively charged electron, meanwhile, is the positively charged positron.</div>
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Physicists have created antimatter in the laboratory. However when they do, they create an equal amount of matter. That indicates that the big Bang must have created matter and antimatter in same quantities. But nearly everything we see around us, from the ground under our feet to the most remote galaxies, is made of ordinary matter.What’s happening? Why is there more matter than antimatter? Our best wager is that the big Bang somehow produced a tiny bit extra matter than antimatter.“What had to have happened early in the history of the universe — in the very moments after the big Bang — is that for every 10 billion antimatter particles there were 10 billion and one matter particle. And the matter and the antimatter annihilated the ten billion, leaving the one. And that little ‘one’ is the mass that makes up us.”But why the slight excess of matter over antimatter in the first place? “We genuinely don’t understand that,. “It’s weird.” Had the initial quantities of matter and antimatter been equal, they’d have annihilated each other completely in a burst of energy. In which case, says Lincoln, “we wouldn’t exist.”<br />
Some answers may come when the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) starts collecting data in 2026. DUNE will analyse a beam of neutrinos — tiny, charge less and nearly mass less particles — fired from Fermilab to the Sanford Underground Research Facility in South Dakota, some 800 miles away. The beam will include neutrinos and anti neutrinos, with the aim of seeing if they behave in the same manner — thus potentially providing a clue to nature’s matter-antimatter asymmetry.<br />
please Read our articles published in Science Journal<br />
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Where Went the Anti matter?<br />
URL<br />
1] <a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="http://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/2010/03/01/the-greatest-story-ever-told-4/#comment-8636" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">http://scienceblogs.com/…/…/the-greatest-story-ever-told-4/…</a><br />
2] : Symmetry or Breaking the symmetry- what was the laws of nature?<br />
URL <a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?80592-Symmetry-or-Breaking-the-symmetry-what-was-the-laws-of-nature&s=dcad4546525237474a002fd474524161" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php…</a><br />
3] URL <a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3AJciLIoadnFEJ%3Ahttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.coursehero.com%2Ffile%2F14476303%2FANTIMATTER-AND-ANTICANCER%2F%20&cd=15&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search…</a><br />
4] Where Went the Anti matter?<br />
<a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php?107287-Where-Went-the-Anti-matter&p=1784461#post1784461" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://forum.cosmoquest.org/showthread.php…</a><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">5. </span><b><span style="color: blue;">What happens in the gray zone between solid and liquid?</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7QP93ELQyyZ-0-TpdLWRVDa_mWyX0JTUNd0IpYhEit7ER0TE9tcRQVvcIcbLZeo-imxF-G1d89Ckdu21Nbz3t1FQaaDw-WnKhFmRKOmXvEOcp47yiI_yMHn-ESmuhaYkxScUAdIINk1s/s1600/DUNE+FROM+NOVA.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="900" data-original-width="1600" height="112" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7QP93ELQyyZ-0-TpdLWRVDa_mWyX0JTUNd0IpYhEit7ER0TE9tcRQVvcIcbLZeo-imxF-G1d89Ckdu21Nbz3t1FQaaDw-WnKhFmRKOmXvEOcp47yiI_yMHn-ESmuhaYkxScUAdIINk1s/s200/DUNE+FROM+NOVA.jpg" width="200" /></a>Solids and liquids are properly understood. However some materials act like both a liquid and a solid, making their behavior hard to predict. Sand is one example. A grain of sand is as solid as a rock, however one million grains can flow through a funnel almost like water.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUGpYZAx6XzEKTrtw_ktRGLmCjQFLeV1Zs1w8rdXoMg9FKPnZh3o3luP7ajzzBUl0E3aWhjXFCHnpqVXCu-h3CTtsBusO8QvUrXtYWVXqgs7MoyCDm8T-v66w1nT7jw7gIxgj-_bcmiio/s1600/matter+sand.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="229" data-original-width="324" height="141" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUGpYZAx6XzEKTrtw_ktRGLmCjQFLeV1Zs1w8rdXoMg9FKPnZh3o3luP7ajzzBUl0E3aWhjXFCHnpqVXCu-h3CTtsBusO8QvUrXtYWVXqgs7MoyCDm8T-v66w1nT7jw7gIxgj-_bcmiio/s200/matter+sand.jpg" width="200" /></a>And highway traffic can behave in a similar way, flowing freely until it turns into blocked at some bottleneck. So a better understanding of this “gray zone” might have important practical applications.</div>
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“People were asking, under what situations does the complete system jam up or clog?” . “What are the crucial parameters to keep away from clogging?” Weirdly, an obstruction in the flow of traffic can, under certain conditions, actually lessen traffic jams.</div>
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">6. </span><b><span style="color: blue;">Can we find a unified theory of physics?</span></b><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">We now have two overarching theories to explain just about every physical phenomenon: Einstein’s theory of gravity (general relativity) and quantum mechanics. The former is good at explaining the motion of everything from golf balls to galaxies. Quantum mechanics is equally impressive in its own domain — the realm of atoms and subatomic particles.</span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">Trouble is, the two theories describe our world in very different terms. In quantum mechanics, events unfold against a fixed backdrop of space-time — while in general relativity, space-time itself is flexible. What would a quantum theory of curved space-time look like? We don’t know, says Carroll. “We don’t even know what it is we’re trying to quantize.”</span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">That hasn’t stopped people from trying. For decades now,<a href="http://lerche.web.cern.ch/lerche/papers/strings.pdf" target="_blank"> string theory — </a>which pictures matter as made up of tiny vibrating strings or loops of energy — has been touted as the best bet for producing a unified theory of physics. But some physicists prefer loop quantum gravity,</span><br />
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">in which space itself is imagined to be made of tiny loops Each approach has enjoyed some success — techniques developed by string theorists, in particular, are proving useful for tackling certain difficult physics problems. But neither string theory nor loop quantum gravity has been tested experimentally. For now, the long-sought “theory of everything” continues to elude us.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgp5WdGz2B_e69r3MPtBNAc5n19UK_Fo9psM2aCJh2QsrWD3CjmZMrJHoEkUAfZ6MAl8ubb5meRrNWzH8i87Zv1C3eSJSi3GgexpPlurlSSeDZnyHbRR9QkQGKKHqwDkNEyC8-ZLc_DTZE/s1600/curled+space+time+1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="268" data-original-width="300" height="178" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgp5WdGz2B_e69r3MPtBNAc5n19UK_Fo9psM2aCJh2QsrWD3CjmZMrJHoEkUAfZ6MAl8ubb5meRrNWzH8i87Zv1C3eSJSi3GgexpPlurlSSeDZnyHbRR9QkQGKKHqwDkNEyC8-ZLc_DTZE/s200/curled+space+time+1.jpg" width="200" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgp5WdGz2B_e69r3MPtBNAc5n19UK_Fo9psM2aCJh2QsrWD3CjmZMrJHoEkUAfZ6MAl8ubb5meRrNWzH8i87Zv1C3eSJSi3GgexpPlurlSSeDZnyHbRR9QkQGKKHqwDkNEyC8-ZLc_DTZE/s1600/curled+space+time+1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: #1d2129; text-align: left;">7. How did life evolve from nonliving matter? </span><span style="color: #1d2129; text-align: left;">For its first half-billion years, Earth was lifeless. Then life took hold, and it has thrived ever since. But how did life rise up? Before biological evolution began, scientists believe there was chemical evolution, with simple inorganic molecules reacting to form complex organic molecules, most likely inside the oceans. However what kick-started this process in the first place?</span></a></div>
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MIT physicist Dr. Jeremy England currently put forward a theory that attempts to provide an explanation for the origin of life in terms of fundamental principles of physics. in this view, life is the inevitable result of rising entropy. If the theory is correct, the arrival of life “should be as unsurprising as rocks rolling downhill,” England told Quanta mag in 2014.The idea is highly speculative. Recent computer simulations, but, may be lending support to it. The simulations show that normal chemical reactions (of the sort that would have been common on the newly formed Earth) can cause the creation of distinctly structured compounds — seemingly a crucial stepping-stone on the path to living organisms.<br />
Once life took root on our planet, some 4 billion years ago, it spread everywhere. But how life evolved from non-living matter stays a mystery. Mark Bowler / Nature picture Library/Getty photos<br />
what makes life so hard for physicists to study? Anything that’s alive is “far from equilibrium,” as a physicist might put it. In a system in equilibrium, one component is pretty similar to every other, with no flow of energy in or out. (A rock would be an example; a box full of gas is some other.) Life is just the opposite. A plant, for example, absorbs sunlight and uses its energy to make complex sugar molecules while radiating heat returned into the environment.<br />
Understanding these complicated systems “is the incredible unsolved problem in physics,” says Stephen Morris, a university of Toronto physicist. “How do we deal with these far-from-equilibrium systems which self-organize into amazing, complicated things — like life?”</div>
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">8] </span><b><span style="color: blue;"><a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/who-deserves.html?pageNum_GetGreetings=2&totalRows_GetGreetings=399#greetings" target="_blank">Faster Than Light particles Tachyon does it really Exist ?</a></span></b><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">Read our Published article Tachyon- Faster than Light Particle Exist in Our Universe or an Imaginary Mathematical Particle International Journal of Astronomy, Astrophysics and Space Science Pages: 12-29</span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;"> | Vol. 2, No. 3, June 2015</span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">For the relativistic formula for the kinetic energy, ordinary subatomic particles are confined in an infinite well of velocity of
Light [c]. So it may be however considered that Faster than Light Particle (FTL) speed phenomenon may exist in this Universe.
On the other hand to day even physicists and particle physicist do not consider that Faster than light particles (FTL) exists. The
FTL particle is called “Tachyons” the name coined by G. Feinberg [8] in 1969. There had been many search by various
experiments for FTL but most of them showed negative for their existences. It may be that light particles created inside the
atomic nuclei which has the nonzero rest mass less than 10-32 kg has the probability of almost unity to transfer into FTL. The
electron neutrinos and muon neutrinos also have been observed as FTL state but they have mass and if the rest mass of the
neutrinos emitted in proton smashing at speed of light is less than 10-32 then it may be travelling as FTL and there is possibility
of existences of Tachyons. </span><br />
<a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="async" href="http://www.openscienceonline.com/journal/archive2?journalId=703&paperId=1548" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">http://www.openscienceonline.com/journal/archive2…</a><br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlAC_W1mwvIi59W3FBDOotoKJRxy4oN0WCzGFWcyLcdxSmJd6YUKDrFfKfYE-l230vi_yEvIl4ts_JVq1MirjBC46N1dkwhekAHqKsAIr3ifJEaKy8tIs3JJON-3qvsgweSk7-EYACMZ4/s1600/tachyon+particles.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="415" data-original-width="477" height="173" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlAC_W1mwvIi59W3FBDOotoKJRxy4oN0WCzGFWcyLcdxSmJd6YUKDrFfKfYE-l230vi_yEvIl4ts_JVq1MirjBC46N1dkwhekAHqKsAIr3ifJEaKy8tIs3JJON-3qvsgweSk7-EYACMZ4/s200/tachyon+particles.jpg" width="200" /></a><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">2] Particles break light-speed limit Tachyon is an mathematical Imaginary particle that may moves faster then Photons (Light particles) in the universe and yet to be discovered #27107 Published online 22 September 2011 | Nature | doi:10.1038/news.2011.554 </span><br />
<a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="http://www.ccsem.infn.it/ef/provvisoria/NewAZ/intervisteAZ/Particles%20break%20light-speed%20limit%20:%20Nature%20News.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">http://www.ccsem.infn.it/…/Particles%20break%20light-speed%…</a><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;"> </span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;">9] What was before the Big Bang?</span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">When Edwin Hubble declared that the Universe was continually expanding, Einstein was so perturbed that he reportedly called his inclusion of the Cosmological Constant in the Theory of General Relativity the “biggest blunder” of his life. The blunder was his </span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">assumption that the Universe was a static, unchanging place. The </span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">expansion of our Universe implies that its diverging inhabitants, like the diverged rivulets from a pinched hose, can be traced back to a single point. The Universe was then determined to have been conceived from a stellar explosion, the first cosmological event, a Big Bang.</span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">If the Universe was infinite and everlasting, then every line of sight would end up on the surface of a star, such that the night sky would be as radiant as the surface of the Sun. This is, of course, not the case, to account for which, stars mustn’t shine before a certain time. The discovery that the Universe has a beginning, nearly 14 billion years ago, is so profound that it led Stephen Hawking to claim it to be “probably the most remarkable discovery of modern cosmology.</span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">However, one cannot help but wonder what caused this Bang itself? Which is another way to ask what existed before it?</span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">That question, however, is too vague. Physicists narrow it down by scrutinizing only certain aspects of it, such as speculating what prior phenomenon would cause our Universe to exhibit the properties it currently has. One perplexing peculiarity is the Universe’s astonishing order. The Universe, for some mysterious reason, exhibits very low entropy or disorder, and since entropy increases with time, the Universe must have logically begun with an even lesser entropy. A pre-Big Bang theory must account for why it started out this way. Amongst all the theories, I have enumerated only two of the most important ones. However, these are speculations, not verified facts, but the genius and rigor behind them nonetheless illustrate nature’s acquiescence to outrageous and downright weird possibilities, if, of course, the math allows.</span><br />
<b><span style="color: blue;">Big Bounce</span></b><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">A universe with a beginning implies that it must have an end. Cosmologists refer to this as the Big Crunch, an apocalyptic event where the Universe becomes too crowded and crumbles under its own mass. In the scenario, at some point, gravitational contraction triumphs spacial expansion and pulls every mass toward one single point, developing into a monstrous black hole.The theory called Big Bounce predicts that our universe sprouted from the collapse of a previous Universe when it collapsed into a singularity and then “bounced back” to produce ours. Singularities are extremely notorious cosmological phenomena. Currently, no branch of physics can explain their behavior. Not only does Einstein’s General Relativity break down at such an infinitesimal scale, but particle physics at an infinite density is also beyond the understanding of the Standard Model of quantum physics. The Big Bounce especially violates General Relativity, as there seems to be no apparent reason why a black hole would abruptly transmute into a white hole. Some believe that our reasoning is incomplete and there must be a new, undiscovered field that converts contraction into expansion.A unified theory, however, could be of some help. The entailed physics, which is highly esoteric, is a combination of classical and quantum physics called quantum cosmology. It has slyly found a way to predict the “bounce” without encountering a singularity. Quantum cosmologists speculate that the Big Crunch did not contract into a singularity but to a slightly larger, primitive point of finite volume and density where the quantum effects of gravity reached their zenith and became so extremely repulsive than an entirely novel Universe bounced back from the dead as this repulsive force thrust everything hither and thither.</span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">The theory was coined in the 1960s and gained a fair amount of traction in the 80s and early 90s. Despite its inability to explain how the Universe began with a low entropy, the theory can explain how it assumed a flat and uniform structure. In fact, it requires forward-moving time with decreasing entropy, which I’ve already mentioned is not possible.Supporters of the Big Bounce theory predict that the birth of our Universe is a part of a recurrent cycle of Crunches and Bangs. However, a Big Crunch seems unlikely, as Dark Energy is expanding the Universe at exorbitant rates. A Heat Death seems to be more plausible.</span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">see URLs 1] </span><a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fsuperstringtheory.com%2Fcosmo%2Fcosmo4.html&h=AT2WNoz9QvGWLWU9nrdVeMCF9g8kvXf5Z3CN4LJ_oWUMg45_ZofWIgkgcKEH-Jpe6wx-dfuzxXXP2PjJLP4i0KuWCVmWLKtbx_NcknXwEhvxB9Nt5BSYu8zZiRHt-FGYlpj8FFtP0yU8d57SuTlM1_w" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">http://superstringtheory.com/cosmo/cosmo4.html</a><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;"> </span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">2] </span><a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physics-astronomy.com%2F2017%2F11%2Fwhat-came-before-big-bang-intriguing.html%23.WnrQj66WbIU&h=AT0yuL96ctpLFSxIGbh7xwhdGGZDYLoaX0uIRWV3pBzdhhpfwx-IAp_18IEpcjHBqOrCYRwfMA1JaSwQIDqyn7QPaEez_fwfQ2pWOlKKO-44j7HbDzM5LqhFfummgYhgtyCKZZZ3wfaH8EmGZ8hDe2s" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">http://www.physics-astronomy.com/…/what-came-before-big-ban…</a><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">3] </span><a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="async" href="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fnews%2F2014%2F04%2Fscientists-find-imprint-universe-existed-big-bang&h=AT0Xq_lsPQ64_cZJwxHqnIkkGy3qF8_2pGajNTql1YA4CCGBCwwUevoxVEJfBjrXMVXiRcD0Yj_LivLxH1jDhJkwkWfQbNIZRC2jinCifoXbHEGCUHU3VUlBAgL6uGmvtZ3kSURV2YrBNfOxbm4F0yvUwXeVToSMBWKg" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">http://www.sciencemag.org/…/scientists-find-imprint-univers…</a><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;"> </span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">4] </span><a data-ft="{"tn":"-U"}" data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencenews.org%2Fblog%2Fscience-ticker%2Fjet-milky-way%25E2%2580%2599s-giant-black-hole-shows-itself%23comment-1269582178&h=AT0H7S0wnd0Y0lNOo9dZQGRfrNSgRrFmMYHJ9UqEbM1GUmcdPssp2zYQdXsAgONWI607XFGqkHMTcyO9o79k3G239GKlT6L-wE4yGs6GKrGHJmKmyTdd63X2y9wXhJGFZGb7i1Zt8acVSjC6Pd7RhyQ" rel="noopener nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-size: 14px; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank">https://www.sciencenews.org/…/jet-milky-way%E2%80%99s-giant…</a><span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 14px;"><span style="color: #1d2129;">9]<a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/who-deserves.html?pageNum_GetGreetings=2&totalRows_GetGreetings=399#greetings" target="_blank"> </a></span><b><span style="color: blue;"><a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/who-deserves.html?pageNum_GetGreetings=2&totalRows_GetGreetings=399#greetings" target="_blank">Is there Multi Universe?</a></span></b></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) recorded in the 1960s was indelible proof of the occurrence of the Big Bang. It was the residual heat, the first rays of light emanating from that explosion, whose wavelength was now stretched to microwaves. However, cosmologists were baffled by how uniform the map was. The isotropy gives a hint as to why the Universe is so ordered.The CMBR is a sumptuous map that represents indelible proof of the occurrence of the Big Bang. One can quite easily observe the map’s uniformity implying the isotropy of the primordial Universe</span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-size: 14px;">Objects reach a temperature equilibrium by distributing their heat to a nearby object or their surroundings until their lowered temperature and the recipient’s elevated temperature become equal. However, the map’s uniformity seems impossible, since accomplishing an equilibrium between astronomical distances is constrained by the speed of light — it cannot be achieved instantaneously.</span></div>
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Alan Guth proposed that an equilibrium was quickly achieved just moments after the Big Bang when the atomic entities were in close proximity. According to him, the equilibrium was promptly succeeded by an exponential expansion of the Universe. It bloated in less than a fraction of a second, assuming the structure we now see. He called this phenomenon inflation.Inflation doesn’t just beautifully explain how the Big Bang might have occurred, but it can also explain what might have caused it. According to inflation, empty space continually experiences tiny random quantum fluctuations where energized pairs of particles and anti-particles can pop into existence, as long as they exist for an infinitesimal time until before annihilating themselves instantaneously. Inflation separates these entities before they are effaced. However, researchers in the 1980s discovered that inflation is eternal – the greater-than-light-speed expansion stops in some regions but continues in others. This hints before <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/who-deserves.html?pageNum_GetGreetings=2&totalRows_GetGreetings=399#greetings" target="_blank">Rupak Bhattacharya </a>and<a class="profileLink" data-hovercard-prefer-more-content-show="1" data-hovercard="/ajax/hovercard/user.php?id=100000193511625&extragetparams=%7B%22fref%22%3A%22mentions%22%7D" href="https://www.facebook.com/profpranabkr.bhattacharya?fref=mentions" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; text-decoration-line: none;">ProfPranab Kr Bhattacharya</a> the formation of a grid of universes or a multiverse that mimics concatenated soap bubbles, where our Universe is one amongst them, isolated from our neighbors, who elude any detection.A multiverse implies that inflation creates infinite universes, each illustrating different properties, all of which can be traced to mere chance. Why then are the laws of nature so generously suspended in our favor? A little dab of misfortune and the constants would have assumed a different value, debarring our existence!</div>
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<b><span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">Schrödinger Cat's Experiment's Interpretation and </span></span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Parallel Universe or Multiple Universes</span></b><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"><b> <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/who-deserves.html?pageNum_GetGreetings=2&totalRows_GetGreetings=399#greetings" target="_blank">Rupak Bhattacharya</a>1, Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya*, Upasana Bhattacharya, Ritwik Bhattacharya, Rupsa Bhattacharya, Ayishee Mukherjee, Dalia Mukherjee, Hindol Banerjee, Debasis Mukherjee5, Ronok Vyas6 </b></span></span><b style="color: #1d2129; font-family: helvetica, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">* Research & Reviews: Journal of Space Science & Technology</b><br />
<b><span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">ISSN: 2321-2837(online), ISSN: 2321-6506(print) </span></span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Volume 5, Issue 1</span></b><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Quantum mechanics provides us most fundamental descriptions of our most early universe,</span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">but there is a long-standing debate amongst theoretical physicists about what all these</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">mathematics really mean in real world? The present three-dimensional (3D) universe, we</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">humans experience daily since our birth, is probably just one of an enormous numbers of</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">essentially classical worlds, and all quantum phenomena arise from a universal force of</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">repulsions that prevented many universes (Multiverse) from having identical physical</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">configurations like ours. Probabilities arise only because of our human ignorance as to which</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">in our world an observer occupies a position in space time. This picture is all that is needed to</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">explain bizarre quantum effects such as particles that can tunnel through solid barriers and</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">wave behavior in double-slit experiments or in a warm hole. Our many-interacting-universes</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">approach hinges on our assumption that interactions between deterministically evolving</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">worlds cause all quantum effects. Each world is simply the position of particles in threedimensional</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">space time, and each would evolve according to Newton’s laws, if there were no</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">inter world interactions. A surprising feature of human approach was that the formulation</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">contains nothing that corresponds to the mysterious quantum wave functions, except in the</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">formal mathematical limit in which the number of worlds becomes infinitely large.</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">Conversely, Newtonian mechanics corresponds to the opposite limit of just one world. Thus,</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">our approach should incorporate both classical and quantum theory. As few as two</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">interacting worlds can result in quantum like effects, such as tunneling through a barrier.</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">Many interacting worlds theory (MIW) explains that rather than standing apart, an infinite</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">number of universes in the early time shared the same space and time as ours. They show that</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">the theory can explain quantum mechanical effects while leaving open the choice of theory to</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">explain the universe at large scales. This is a fascinating new variant of multiverse theory</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">that, in a sense, creates not just a doppelganger of everyone but an infinite number of them all</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">overlaying each other in the same space and time. The fine tuning of parameters required to</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">reproduce our present day universe suggests that our universe may simply be a region within</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">an eternally inflating super-region. Many other regions beyond our observable universe might</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">have existed in earlier times with each such universe governed by a different set of physical</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">parameters and laws. Collision between these regions, if they occurred, should have left</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">signatures of anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) but have not been seen</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">yet. We assess different mechanisms for this residual emission and conclude that although</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">there is a 30% probability that noise fluctuations may cause foregrounds to fall within 3σ of</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">the excess, there is less than a 0.5% probability that foregrounds can explain all the excess.</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;"> A </span></span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">plausible explanation is that the collision of our universe with an alternate universe, whose</span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">baryon to photon ratio is a factor of ∼4500 larger than ours, could produce enhanced</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">Hydrogen Paschen-series emission at the epoch of recombination. Future spectral mapping</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">and deeper observations at 100 and 217 GHz are needed to mitigate systematics arising from</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">unknown galactic foregrounds and to confirm this unusual hypothesis. After careful analysis</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">of the spectrum of the CMB, Chary et al. found a signal that was about 4500x brighter than it</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">should have been, based on the number of protons and electrons. Scientists believe that this</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">existed in the very early universe. Indeed, this particular signal, an emission line that arose</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">from the formation of atoms during the era of recombination is more consistent with a</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">universe whose ratio of matter particles to photons is about 65x greater than our own. There</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">is a 30% chance that this mysterious signal is just noise, and not really</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px;">Hitherto, the scientific community has reached a consensus that the Big Bang erupted from a singularity, a point where all the laws of physics break down, rendering only crude accounts of possibilities beyond it. Right now, without a Theory of Everything, a theory that would hopefully unite classical and particle physics, science can only beat around the bush; it cannot predict without any uncertainty how our Universe began</span></span></div>
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Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1650324023835287185.post-69054840504888454432018-01-19T23:02:00.001-08:002023-03-27T10:28:08.955-07:00Health Inequity in India Published in Blogs.BMJ.com<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2017/04/07/is-indias-national-health-policy-geared-towards-achieving-the-sustainable-development-goals/#comment-3248718895" target="_blank">Title --: Health Inequity in India <br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />Authors are <br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />Professor Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya [1] ; Rupak Bhattacharya[2] , Upasana Bhattacharya [1], Ritwick Bhattacharya [2], Rupsa Bhattacharya[2], Ayishee Mukherjee[2], Dalia Mukherjee[2] Hindole Banerjee[2] Debasis Mukherjee[2] Runa Mitra[3]</a></div>
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<a href="http://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2017/04/07/is-indias-national-health-policy-geared-towards-achieving-the-sustainable-development-goals/#comment-3248718895" target="_blank">[1] Professor of Pathology Murshidabad Medical College, Berhampore court, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India [ 2] of residence 7/51 Purbapalli, Sodepur, Dist 24 parganas[ north ], West Bengal kolkata-110, India [ 3] Social worker BK Mitra palliative care center Barrackpore 24 parganas [North] India</a></div>
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<a href="http://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2017/04/07/is-indias-national-health-policy-geared-towards-achieving-the-sustainable-development-goals/#comment-3248718895" target="_blank">In India, 63 million people sink into poverty yearly due to unaffordable health cost in paradoxical health care system, since independence 1947. In 1950, central government designed national health programme. Severe variations amongst states economic development, social & religious conditions, familial income inequities, political governance and willing led wide disparities in access to health services and population health. India initially accepted public sector led model, where services were free to all, emphasizing rural health care, when private sectors were limited to general practitioners and charity run hospitals . It was pyramidal structure connected PHCs to S-D to district to government run tertiary medical colleges. Since 1947 economic planning regarded health expenditure was non-productive, poorly recorded. Public health needs to meet health of expanding population particularly in areas of stroke, CVD, cancer, diabetes, respiratory diseases, mental illness, suicide, HIV, tropical and infectious diseases and other chronic diseases and stressed health system beyond their capacity and private sectors proliferated, large corporate hospitals opened in urban aggregation and non engagement with primary health care providers, do not provide basic essential health care to largest sections of rural, suburban population & these are centres of all kinds of malpractices. Un affordable for most Indians, with weak regulatory system, failing to set and enforce quality, cost standard inadequate, inappropriate, unethical care & cure. Health insurance available to small proportions of workers and when poverty level is very high i.e. 10% of health care expenditure is out of pocket spending.All these are because economist & policy makers do not recognize health as essential for economic development and health is not a legislated right in India. NRHM focuses on maternal & child health. No attention is even paid to communicable, non-communicable, tropical & mental diseases which lead to largest death & disability in India. In 2012-2017 planning Government of India focussed & recommended increased public finances from 1% of GDP to 2.5% of GDP through toy funding supplemented by ESI & EPJ & free provision of essential drugs & diagnostics and referral system. India must address the enactment of right to health through parliamentary legislation and allow the state what services that the right should translate into welfare scheme. India & West Bengal must engage community care instead of mushrooming growth of private care. Improvement of public care & cure, improvement of quality health care personnel, Generalists, Specialists, nurses, GDAs, shortfalls & more training institutions.HEALTH EXPENDITURE VALUE Per Capita (US $) 61 Percentage of GDP 3 Amount of pocket private health expenditure 86 Public services(% of total) 33 Percentage of population insured in 2015 17 (Government 12%+ employee 3%+ individual 2%) No of Physician per 1000 population in 2015 7 Life expentancy at birth 66 Annual no. of death per 1000 population 17 No. of infant death per 1000 live birth 8 No. of death per 1000 live birth in 2014 41 No.of maternal death per 100000 live birth in 2014 190</a><br />
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Professor ( Dr) Pranab kumar Bhattacharya MD( Univ.of calcutta)http://www.blogger.com/profile/13040731157299379951noreply@blogger.com0