The question of existence of antimatter in significant quantities in the present universe. in our
galaxy! The question of whether antimatter had an equal role with matter in making up
galaxies? In a contemporary Para diagram of Grand Unified theories & Gauge Theories.
These questions are related to the questions of nature of charge, parity variations at high energy.
The questions of separating matter and antimatter, proton and anti proton, helium and anti helium.
The symmetry between matter and antimatter [ i.e baryon symmetry in the cosmology ]
that was once observed at lenier accelerator had forced many scientists and astrophysicist
to think that there existed also a similar balance in the universe of “’matter and antimatter””
at most early phase of the universe. But we don’t see or don’t find antimatter in our observable
universe.Our observable universe is made of matter only. Why? Antimatter annihilate
with matter. If that was so, then there would not be any matter to make up
super clusters, galaxies ,stars,blackholes, planets, our observable universe. Was really
the matter and antimatter mixed together?Or was the matter and antimatter were in two
separate compartments? If the later was true, then wemust have another Universe.
That universe was made of antimatter. However universe consisted of large mass of matter and
antimatter- standard Big Bang model says so. On this view, in authors opinion,
is that whether matter and antimatter must co-existed all together at some early stage of Big Bang.?
For it ,only when the temperature was high enough, it was possible for nucleons and anti nucleons,
quarks and anti quarks r particles and anti r particles to rub their shoulders with each others,
and simple theory suggest that these rubbing resulted annihilation with production of photons
and neutrinos. H. Alfeven etal ( Alfeven .H – Gravitational Signature of Matter-Antimatter Interaction
Rev. Mod. Physics Vol37; P652; 1965) did bring out a mechanism which permitted region of matter
and antimatter to co-exist together in our galaxy, even without appreciable mixing. Otherwise in
early state of universe [when a homogeneous universe] there would have to be also a mechanism
for separating matter and antimatter so that galaxies were formed in clusters. Then the big questions
are 1) what was the mechanism for separation of matter and antimatter?
2) Where went the bulk of antimatter? 3) Does antimatter stars or antimatter galaxies were
capable of nuecleosynthesis? Does the antimatter stars or antimatter galaxies at all exists
that Rupak Bhattacharjee suggested in his concept of anti Universe? 5) If at all exists what is the
way of communication from our universe made of matter to a Universe made of antimatter?
The black holes/ The warm holes? Bhatacharya Pranab Kumar& Bhattacharya Rupak-
Does the universe contain also anti galaxies- a myth or a reality? Space Light Vol 4 P7-13; 1998).
Defining a region of mass MR as a typical unit of matter and antimatter According to conventional
standard model or Big Bang model of the universe, there were small excess of baryon particles
(~1 in 109) over anti particles in early stage of evolution of universe. At that time the thermal energy
“KT” exceeded the rest energy mpc2 of baryon particles. It was to the excess amount of KT, for that
we see the present existence of matter in the universe. So as thermal energy dropped bellow mc2,
the baryons and anti baryons started annihilated and there leaving just excess of baryons intact.
Let us now consider a model of universe that was initially filled up with the thermal radiations.
Its expansion was described by the scale factor R (t) which behaved approximately like t -1/2
while the temperature varied like R-1. For early stage of the universe, effect of space curvature was
negligible. It was known in history of such a model, Our Bhattacharya model of universe can now
be divided in to several periods according to content of thermal radiation. The Hadronic (KT≥100 mev),
Leptonic (KT≥ 1mev) and Radiative (KT≥300K). Super imposed on division, on evolution of baryons,
we have to consider also other periods. The separation period (KT≥350Mev), annihilation period
(KT≥25Kev) and coalescence period (T>300K). There was some interest in 1970s regarding the
existence of the antimatter in the universe. Stiegman. G in 1969
( Stiegman. G. – Nature Vol224; P447; 1969 Antimatter, Galactic Nuclei and Theories of the
Universe: Speculation on the Nature of the Nuclei of Galaxies ) showed that if the space time
were filled with equal mixture of matter and antimatter then gamma ray flux that resulted from
nucleon and anti nucleon annihilation would be far above the observed limit. But as per
Rupak Bhattacharya, Ritwick Bhattacharya and Pranab kumar bhattacharya there were
much possibilities that matter and antimatter existed quite separately in large regions
consisting solely of one characteristic type, perhaps in the form of galaxies and anti galaxies
(Bhattacharjee Rupak, Bhattacharya Ritwick and Bhattacharya Pranab et al) separation,
one can assume that a process probably existed in early Big Bang model. This process could
however separated matter and antimatter into contiguous regions at some early epoch of Big Bang.
We can also assume that the regions remain separated until and after decoupling would prevent
collision between them, owing to effect of radiation. After decoupling, the material contained in
several such regions started to collapse and coalesce. The collapse and coalescence led to an
annihilation of particles from regions to anti regions. The rate at which coalescence occurred,
depended on the scale of density fluctuation. Defining a blob of mass MB, as the largest commonly
occurring density fluctuation, existing at decompleing, we know from galaxy forming theory
[How galaxies form ] that the minimum mass of the blob was ~107M◎ jeans mass. It is also
well known that any gravitational bound group of blob will eventually undergo collapse.
But due to expansion of the universe, the collapse would not proceed rapidly until the density
contracted. The collision cross section for blob contained in such group became very high, once
collapse set in. So, if both matter and antimatter were present in early universe, one must expect
a considerable amount of annihilation to occur at the time of collapse. So there must be a separation
period for matter and antimatter as per Rupak Bhattacharya. In the separation period particles
and antiparticles [Quarks and antiquarks / r particles and Anti r particles/ Neutrinos and
anti neutrinos/ Gluons and anti gluons Higgs and anti Higgs particles ] separated spatially
as a consequence of their statistical repulsion. This was initially induced by fluctuation
(Bhattacharjee Rupak and Bhattacharya Pranab Kumar bhattacharya Upasana et al -
The Cosmic Web, the Seed of Galaxies- Are Also Made of Warm Intergalactic Medium(WHIM)
and Dark Energy? Global Journal of Science Frontier Research: APhysics and Space Science
Volume 17 Issue 1 Version 1.0 Year 2017)
). One can compute the size as “δ,” as the individual condensation containing an excess of nucleon
and anti- nucleon reached during 10~5 S of the period. The total baryonic number in that period was
1028. Near the end of separation period universe was filled up with emulsion of nucleons and anti
nucleons with a topical size δ=3x10~4c.m. The next came annihilation period. When temperature
fell below the critical temperature (T) the particles and antiparticles [quarks and anti quarks
r anti r ] started to annihilate. The annihilate process was then controlled by diffusion so that
densities D and N (Nucleons) and N-(anti nucleons) satisfy the equation as given below
δΝ/δΤ=DV-2N-αN N-, δN-/δΤ=δV-N-αNN- (== Bhattacharjee Rupak ==). At the end of this period
a typical fraction of 10 ~8 or more nucleon survived. They were still in the form of emulsion
with a typical size of 105cm and with a typical mass of 1010 gram( 100,000,000 000, kilogram)
within a sphere of radius. This was however very far from a galactic mass. During annihilation
the process first gave birth chiefly to pions and through their decay to high-energy photons,
electrons, positrons, and neutrinos successively. The transfer of momentum by photons and
electrons produces an annihilation pressure at boundary between matter and antimatter.
To find the behavior of matter and antimatter, which were probably in contact through a
common boundary, the effect of high-energy photons and leptons was a dominant feature,
because these particles exerted a very strong pressure and kept the heating system on.
Radiative pressure was very dominant, so that pressure due to heating tended to balance
annihilation. With the possible exception of cosmic gumma rays, observation yielded
essentially no information on the relative amount of matter and antimatter beyond our solar system.
What the observation told us was that matter and antimatter are rarely ,if ever found together.
What was the mechanism that matter and antimatter were then separated?. Consider a gas of
proton, antiproton, electron and positron, which is sufficiently diluted and then annihilation can
not be neglected there. In general, such a gas will be situated in a magnetic field say “B” , in a
Gravitational field say “G” and in a electromagnetic field of flux “F”. Each of fields will then be
assumed static and homogeneous. In particular length scale for variation in “B” must be large
enough that particle drifts arising from magnetic in homogenetics are also negligible.
The protons and antiprotons will be much more strongly influenced by Gravitational field than
by Radiation field. As well as spiraling around the magnetic line of forces the heavy particles
will therefore have a drift velocity Vh= mPxgxB/qB2 ,where mP is the proton mass, q is the particle
charge,.[Bhattacharjee Rupak & Bhattacharya Pranab Kumar – Does the Universe contain also
anti galaxies- a myth or a reality- Space Light; Vol4 P7-13;1998] .Because of their small mass,
and larger scattering cross section, the electrons and positrons will feel much weaker Gravitational
force due to radiation pressure. It is however to be noted that just electric current through gas does
not heavily result in separation of charges, and the opposed drift of matter need not produce an
actual matter- antimatter separation. On the other hand , matter and antimatter in an isolated
cloud or in extended medium, with an appropriate field configuration should achieve some degree
of separation. Because , proton and antiproton ,electron and positron fluxes will not be equal in
general. There will be some separation of charge leading to an electrical field “ E “ and E x B drift.
As E x B drift increases, heavy particles acquire an inertia which tends to remove the original
difference between proton and antiproton and electron and positron fluxes. So the big question
appeared before us What happened to these antimatter?. After the Plank epoch, when the age of the
universe was t ≤10-43S and temperature of the universe was T≥109Gev , we can be sure enough ,
that the interactions between the matter and the antimatter at their first quark level or Between
r+/ r_ [R particle level] became unimportant. This was because of that rate for gravitational
interaction( with Graviton particles ) was much less then expansion rate of the universe.
Although the interactions between matter and antimatter particles kept each of them
separately in a thermal equilibrium and thus probably Two worlds were created.
These Two world did not feel each other’s existence at very microscopic level.
During the primordial nucleo synthesis of the early universe, which started ~1S after the
initial Big Bang moment, the yield of the Big Bang depended on the expansion rate of the Universe.
The expansion density PT= P+Ps by R0/R= [(δπGN/3)(P+Ps)]1/2 where P and Ps= density of matter
and Antimatter, R= Cosmic scale factors. During this early epoch the universe was radiation
dominated with P=g (π2/30)T4 where g counts the effective number of degrees of freedom
particles (Rupak Bhattacharjee). The temperature of the particle world and that of anti particle
world were not the same. The inflation occurred in the two worlds in both the sector but not
necessarily simultaneously. The inflation involved was a random event in the nucleation of a
bubble or in the formation of a fluctuation region. At beginning of the inflation the universe
was in false vacuum state for both the worlds. The bubble nucleated for one world, first say
for antimatter world then matter world . As the bubble grew exponentially in physical size,
both the temperature of matter and antimatter decreased exponentially. At this time the ratio
of entropy remained constant. When the antiparticle vacuum energy was converted into radiation,
the antiparticle temperature raised and entropy decreased. Eventually a bubble of fluctuation
region formed for the matter world within the antimatter bubble. During the second phase of
inflation, new bubble grew exponentially. When the vacuum energy of ordinary matter world
converted into radiation, the temperature of particle world raised to a temperature, which was
exponentially larger than the temperature of the antiparticle world. Thus the entropy was reduced
further. To an exponentially small value and the matter dominated the visible universe. According
to Big Bang model of Universe, there was small excess of matter then antimatter (~1 in 109) in the
early stage of evolution, when the thermal energy KT exceeded the rest of energy mpc2. The baryons
and anti baryons annihilated and then leaving just excess of baryon intact. From a fit of
nucleon-nucleon scattering theory, the evidence of π, η7, ω, ρ, and mesons can divide the
nucleon and anti nucleon scattering amplitude. There are bound states of nucleon and
anti nucleon pairs, which can be identified with mesons π, ρ, ω, and η7. Such a situation
in which some particles appear as bound states and act as agent for Special Forces.
Dashen .Roger (Dashen. R Physics Review-Vol187; P345; 1969) summarized a basic
formula relating to Gibb’s potential Ω to it’s value Ω0 for free particles and to
collision matrix –S Ω =Ω0 -KT/2π∫δEc-E/KT trace [clogs (E) ee-∑u1n1].
Rupak , Ritwick and Pranab Bhattacharya’s theory is a separate theory from
conventional CP violation theory of Shakarov. Bhattacharya’s Model of universe
put two big questions. What was before the Big Bang? What happened from 0.00001 second
after Big bang Plank’s time of 10~34 seconds. Present Big Bang is accepted at 10~32 second.
The most recent report 2006 WAMP(CMB) cosmology shows glows of Big Bang, when the
universe was 3,80,000 years old and universe had a temperature then 3000c
The R particle –a zero mass particle also probably gives a solution for the age of universe
in accelerating universe. So long a not solved question before the physicist was whether
the nucleosynthesis was baryonic or non-baryonic in quark hadrons phase transition of big bang .
universe always suffered a short fall of ordinary matter constituents of proton, neutron & electron.
The R particles- a zero mass particle theory helps in the concept that beyond the horizon or boundary
of the observable universe there are energy particles and favours the concept of ever expanding universe
from its creation moment at big bang like event
