Blogs of Professor Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(cal) Pathology; : An invitation to Prof Pranab Kr Bhattacharya submi...

Blogs of Professor Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(cal) Pathology; : An invitation to Prof Pranab Kr Bhattacharya submi...: Flag this message An invitation to cellular and molecular biologists Tuesday, 7 May, 2013 3:31 PM From: " Royal S...

An invitation to Prof Pranab Kr Bhattacharya submit a Theme proposal to Philosophical Transactions B ; Tuesday, 7 May,From: "Royal Society Publishing" To: profpkb@yahoo.co.in

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An invitation to cellular and molecular biologists

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Invitation to submit a Theme proposal to Philosophical Transactions B Dear Professor Bhattacharya Philosophical Transactions B publishes topical themed issues, many of which focus on molecular and cellular biology, and the journal is keen to receive further Theme proposals from world top scientists working in these areas of science. You could be the next Guest Editor of Philosophical Transactions B.  As a Guest Editor of the journal, you will have the opportunity to organize an issue dedicated to the topic of your choice, therefore creating a landmark resource in your field.  Other benefits include:  ● The opportunity to invite, review and edit contributions to showcase the     latest research, ideas and opinions. ●  The prospect of bringing together researchers from across traditional     discipline boundaries in a unique model that offers the combined      advantages of book and journal publishing. ●  Wide international readership through international subscriptions,     PubMed and ISI. ●  An open access option and all papers made free one year after     publication. ●  High production values and efficient, friendly editorial office support. ●  Dedicated marketing and media promotion plans.  ● The chance to contribute to a charitable organization that recognises,     promotes and supports excellence in science. To find out more about becoming a Guest Editor with Philosophical Transactions B, please visit our website or email your proposal to philtransb@royalsociety.org Recent highlighted issues include: ●  Assembly chaperones in health and disease, edited by Roy A Quinlan and R John Ellis ●  Organohalide respiration: using halogenated hydrocarbons as the terminal electron acceptor, edited by David Leys, Lorenz Adrian and Hauke Smidt ●  Single molecule cellular biophysics: combining physics, biochemistry and cell biology to study the individual molecules of life, edited by Mark C Leake Related issues of the journal can be accessed via our dedicated cell issues web page. Professor Tecumseh Fitch, Guest Editor of Pattern perception and computational complexity, says: "Editing a Philosophical Transactions Bissue was well worth the effort - the staff are helpful, professional and efficient; our issue has had real impact on the field.” We look forward to receiving your Theme proposal soon!    © Copyright The Royal Society, 2013 Publishing The Royal Society 6-9 Carlton House Terrace London SW1Y 5AG t: +44 (0)20 7451 2631 e: publishing@royalsociety.org w: rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org Registered Charity No 207043 supporting excellence in science

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”Dengue fever in Kolkata, West Bengal India with atypical presentations and its prevention

 Author

  Professor DR. Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya, MD(Calcutta University) FIc Path( India)  WBMES

 Professor and Head Department of Pathology [in charge, of DCP course of WBUHS & DLT course, Member of BOS for Pathology  & Member Secretary( For DCP) of BOS West Bengal university of Health sciences(WBUHS)  DD36 Salt lake Kolkata ]

 Dept. of Pathology, 2nd floor; Room No 10 C

  Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine

 C.R. Avenue, Kolkata-700073; West Bengal; India

 Department of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of West Bengal (MES Wings)

  E mail  profpkb@yahoo.co.in

The disease burden of Dengue is not exactly known worldwide. But it can be said that at risk population worldwide is between 2.5 billion to increased 3.6 billion in more than 125 countries of which infection occur in 270-400millions people every year and dengue haemorrhagic fever is seen in 2 millions and yearly death from dengue is around 21,000-25,000[^3]  of which Brazil in 21st century began to occupy the first position in word ranking of Dengue fever(DF) reported cases ranging from 63.2 in 2004 to 429.9(2010) per 10,000 inhabitant^[4]

 Dengue is an acute Dengue fever in Kolkata,  febrile viral diseases of short duration, but now a days it is considered reappearing  and is distributed on continental proportion due to travelling in last 25 years. The etiological agent belongs  an arbovirus    Flave viridae family. Flavivurs gender divided into four serotypes DENV-1, DENV-2, DENv-3, DENV-4. Man is the only infection host but there are wide cycles that keep the viral circulation. There is a wide circulation recently in Kolkata West Bengal in year 2012 basically DNEV type-1, DENV type-3, DENV type 4 triggering 2012 dengue epidemic.

  First reported epidemic of Dengue Fever(DF)  occurred in1635 in West Indies and then in 1779-1780 ie around 375  years back. Confirmed epidemic simultaneously  occurred in Asia, North America &  Africa .Since then, it occurred sporadically. Major changes in epidemiology of Dengue occurred after world war II and is continued till day. The first epidemic of DHF and Dengue shock syndrome( DSS) was described in Manila, thereafter in India. DNEV was first Isolated in 1946 in kolkata. In Kolkata, West Bengal, India, DF was first documented in 1824, and several  epidemic took  place in city of Kolkata in years 1836,1906,1911, 1972,1990, 2000,2009, 2010,2012 and probably threatening in 2013.Dengue epidemic In India are cyclical mostly found in month of sept- October  and more frequent expanding geographically into rural areas now.    Dengue hemorrhagic  fever(DHF) occurred  Kolkata first in year 1963-64. The epidemic in Kolkata, West Bengal  in 2003,2004,2005 & 2006 showed predominance of DNEV-3, in 2007 it was DNEV-2, in 2008 DNEV-2 and DNEV3, in2010 it was mainly due to DNEV-2 few cases by DNEV-3 while causes of DHF was infected by multiple serotypes. The epidemic in 2012 was caused by DNEV-3 and DNEV-1 and few by DNEV-4. In 2006 there was an out break in Delhi  and Rajasthan  region of India  in month of September- October  and caused many death. In recent years Dengue has become major international Public health concern due to  billons people travel through out world by air or sea. The Mosquito born infection mostly found in tropical and sub tropical areas around the world and is leading cause of hospitalization and death in rural west Bengal too. In 1980s DF was found in china, Indonesia, Malyesia and thiland. Epedemic occurred  in Bangladesh2005.

 Social and economic issues facilitate disease dissemination. Dengue has high relationship with environmental sanitation conditions, defect in continuous water flow supply, inappropriate  solid and  waste garbage and lack of clean water storage in residences encouraging mosquito breeding. So areas of low socioeconomic conditions in cities, towns of West Bengal are most susceptible for emergence of epidemic.

 Dengue may appear as a febrile acute illness and most DF are self limiting disease and present as ample clinical spectrum from oligo symptomatic form to clinical cases of DF to severe Dengue like DHFwith bleeding and DSS , and multi organ failure. When symptomatic, the illness can range from mild to a severe form  and eventually death may occur which in most cases preceded by shock(DSS). The main mechanism  of shock  and severe Dengue  include  severe plasma leakage,  severe bleeding due to either quantitave and qualitative defect in platelet, increased PT, APT, APTT, increased micro vascular permeability , several organs involvement  like heart, Liver,CNS, . Any of  serotype DENV1 to DENV-4 can cause any form of the disease and pathogenesis depend on  pre-existing antibody, previous infection, (immune enhancement), normal antibody in infants, infecting virus strain , virulence of the virus, host genetic  status, and age of patients.  The  clinical requirements for diagnosis of  classical DF are[ fever,headache,  myalgia, prostration severe retro orbital pain and skin rashes]determined by WHO in 2005 and following laboratory criteria these individuals with positive serology for enzyme method EELISA capture of IgM capture . The resource poor health system of West Bengal, India should depend upon simple to perform,to interpret laboratory tests. It is known that early and specific diagnosis of DHF or DSS followed by supportive therapies can reduce many mortalities. In that case Ns1 antigen immuno chrmatographic  test can help in rural setup.

 Atypical presentation of Dengue found in Kolkata West Bengal in 2012 epidemic included serosities(50%) encephalitis(10%) myocardities(20%) hepatitis(60%) and cholecysties. hepatitis. DF patients in that year often showed aprrox 80% patients above normal raised AST,ALT  ranging  between 22- 800 with an average value 170+_ 192 Iu and ALT value  160+_ 150 iu  with median value 92.00iu and 101iu respectively and PT  and APTT value raised in three patients of alteration of liver function and these patients are mostly of DHF grade II usally happened by 5^th-10^th day after onset of dengue. Both protein liver enzymes, GGT,  APTT ,PT are scarcely reported related to dengue virus.  One important thing is that though serum transaminases raises and persisted even after 2 months serum bilirubin level did not raise or altered much.

Liver is  one of target organ of dengue virus and can be suspected when there is hepatomegaly increased serum gamma globulin, PT,APTT raised in serum after infection and there is negetive HBV and HepC infection by serology. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor(MIF) cytokine,TNF alpha are probable factor that cause hepatic inflammation in dengue. Active cells of immune system are also target for dengue virus infection such as dendrytic cells, NK cells, T cells & B lymho cyte.

The other atypical presentation in 2011 & 2012 DF was neurological symptoms. neurological Symptoms had been recognized for more then a century, which involves  drowsiness, irritability, Short term memory loss, agitation, depression, mono neural palsies seizure, and even death .Related  to neuron trophic effect of the virus are encephalitis, meningitis,  myosities, rhabdomyolisis, and mylities. Related to systemic complication of dengue infection are encephalopathy, Stroke( Both haemmoragic and Ischemic) hypokalemia, Paralysis, and Papilloedma,  Post infection are acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, Miller Fisher syndrome, Phrenic nueropathy, long thoracic nueropathy, occulomotor palsy, Macculopathy and complete hemiplegia due to thalamic involvement^[2]. Recent observation in West Bengal indicate that clinical presentation profile of D F  is changing and neurological complication are being reported more frequently. The exact pathogenesis of neurological complications is not yet understood but probably is due to cerebral edema, hemorrhage, heamo concentration, due to increase in vascular permiability & cougolopathy. One such case was reported from Murshidabad district of West Bengal^[2],of a female aged 10 years with stroke( glasgo coma scale was -5/15) with left sided hemiplegia and her serum IgM ELISA antibody test was postive for DNEV-3. Another 60 years male in 2011 epedemic was diagnosed to be Guillain Barre Syndrome in DNEV-3 infection and his nerve  injury in Dengue may be mediated by Immunological mechanism.

 Though most cases of Dengue fever in Kolkata seen biphasic in Spring and in summer  time(April & May), but maximum number of cases detected in 2012 epidemic in August to September. All age groups were infected but 15-40 years mostly affected with  for unknown reasons female preponderance. 70% cases of DF showed in 2012 complications particularly related to throbocytopenia induced bleeding manifestations( Platelet count< 1.5 lacks and ranged between 60,000- 1.4 lacks/mm and bleeding manifestations included Petechie, purpuria, Tourniquet test positive, hemorrhagic  gastritis, haemoptosis, maleana, epistaxis, hematuria depending on platelet count. About 10-15% patients  developed pancriatitis, Few patients developed rhabdomyolysis,   58% patients had serosities, 20% had myocardities  20% had hepatitis& a calculus cholecysities, 5% patients had CNS abnormalities. In 2012 Death toll reported in West Bengal  was more than 15 cases.

The countries those have achieved a decreased mortality by dengue it had been possible on account of awareness, prevention, development of training programme for early diagnosis of severe dengue by Rapid NS1 test and curing DHF and these countries are probably Cuba, El Salvador, Thailand. For the disease prevention  we however need better understanding of pathogenesis, pathology of this infection. The highest number of hospitalization for suspected cases of Dengue is usually seen in Spring and summer time in kolkata . This is the time which can be attributed to ambient temperature and humidity present in preceding months. Whenever there is an out break the municipal corporation attempt to kill mosquitos( Dengue is transmitted by mosquito bites  ades aegypti  with urban habits and its principal vector is Ades Aegipty and ades Albopictus in West Bengal) by spraying DDT(now resistant),Larvicide sparying  smoke, fumigation on streets, cannels which is worth less procedure as Ades lives and lays eggs within the room where these DDT or smoke or fumigation does not rich at home and there is also no vigillance from health or municipal departments. What is required is community participation and by genetic control releasing genetically sterile male mosquitoes or candidate vaccine. After decades of research by different groups around the world Dengue vaccine development reached a major mile stone in 2010 with initiation of first phase III  clinical trial to investigate a candidate vaccine. This vaccine is Sanofi Pastuer CYD Tetravalent dengue vaccine(TDV) which is now being evaluated for protective efficacy in large scale trial in Latin America and South East Asia as part of extensive clinical development purpose. The CYDTDV candidate comprises four recombinant live, attenuated vaccine based on a yellow fever vaccine 17D(YF17D) back bone, each expressing the pre-membrane and envelop genes of one of the four serotypes. This Vaccine is genetically and phenotypically stable non heppatotrophic, less neuron virulent than yellow fever YF 17D and does not infect mosquito when given by oral route[^5]. The Global clinical development programme included 45,000 participants from 15 countries. More than 23,000 individuals aged 2-45 years received at least one dose of CYD Dengue Vaccine. Vaccine safety is being monitored by independent data monitoring committee(IDMC) and so far no safety signals have been identified. A pooled analysis of safety data available till June 2011 from 5 phase-I studies(USA, Mexico, Philippines) and eight Phase-II studies  also revealed no safety concerns reports of solicited. Reaches and unsolicited adverse events were similar to those of control vaccine and trend to decrease in frequency after 2nd  and 3rd doses vaccination^[5]. The most adverse affect  are mild to moderate injection site pain, erythema, edema, severe headache, fever, malaise,  asthenia and myelgia(14-40%) after each vaccination. All three doses of TDF given 6 months apart. Consistant and balanced antibody responses to all four serotypes are observed. Until now with more than 11,000 people immunized. There were no Dengue like syndrome associated with CYD dengue vaccine. No death reported also. However four serious adverse affects occurred( fatal traffic accident, partial seizure, hepatitis A infection and  severe Upper Respiratory Tract Infection)

 Refrences

1)Gaxiola-Robels R etal" Mortality trend by Dengue in Mexico 1980- to 2009" Rev.Invest.Clini. 2012:64(5);444-451

2)Ashim Kr Mallick, Raohistyan Purkait,Tapan Kr.Singhamahapatra" Dengue fever with unusal Thalamic involvement" JIMA 2012; Vol 110; No1;48-49

3) Dengue guide lines for diagnosis, treatment,prevention and control(internet) Geneva WHO 2009 available from http://whqlibdoc.who.int./publication/2009/9789241547871-eng-pdf

4] Maria Gloria  TEXEIRA Few charecteristics of Dengue's fever epidemiology in Brazil" Rev.Inst.Med.Trop. Saopaulo 54(suppl:18) S1-S4 October 2012

5] Jean Lang " development of SANOF1 Pasteur Teravalent Dengue Vaccine" Rev.Inst.Med.Trop. Saopaulo 54(suppl:18) S15-S17 October 2012

6] Jean Lang, Lucia F Bricks Glovanini, Coel HO " Q&A Sesion o6 Oct 2011 1st international  Symposium on Dengue FMUSP- Sao Paulo" Rev.Inst.Med.Trop. Saopaulo 54(suppl:18) S28-S30 October 2012

 
Acknowledgement- The author gratefully Acknowledge the following persons for their valuable contribution to this article in one or other ways and agreed to mention their names in the acknowledgement section instead of authors

Miss Upasana Bhattacharya daughter of Prof PranabKumar Bhattacharya & student; Mr Rupak Bhattacharya Bsc(cal) Msc(JU); MrRitwik Bhattacharya B.com(cal) Miss Rupsa Bhattacharya-student; Mrs Dalia Mukherjee BA(hons) calcutta University; Mr Debasis  Mukherjee Bsc(calcutta University); Miss Oaindrila Mukherjee BA(Hons) Eng _student Calcutta Univ; Miss Ayshi Mukherjee of residence 7/51 Purbapalli; PO- Sodepur; Dist 24 Parganas(north) Kolkata-110; West Bengal; India; Dr. Soma Das MBBS,DCH(calcutta University) Dr. Anuradha De MD(AIIMS) New Delhi; Dr. Sumana Mukherjee MD(West Bengal University of Health Sciences)

 Copy Right Decleration-: - This article is Intellectual Property of the author & Copy Right of this article  belongs to Professor Pranab kumar Bhattacharya and his first degree relatives only as per copy right act & rules of Intellectual Property Right Rules 3D/107/1201 a,b/ RDF Copy Right rules/ SPARC copy Right rules-2006/ and Protect intellectual Property Right(PIP) copy right rules of USA-2012.Please do not Infringe and be enough careful for your own safety if you are not direct Blood relation to prof Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya  . No person, No NGOS, No Researchers [ except the authors& first degree relatives]  in the state of West Bengal or in any states of India or in any abroad countries are authorized to use this article, with any meaning full,  scientific sentences or with scientific and meaning full words laid out in this article either in the class room/  or in mass teaching programme including CME  or  in any form what so ever it is with any content of this article or while in writing any book or for his/her personal/ home use, or collective works or for any future Research or implementation as a policy matter or,[ except the authors ]or  by Xeroxing and distributing the article/ or by printing/saving/broadcasting the article from any website of internet services,displayed without proper copy right clearance from the authors or from his family members or future copy right owner by written forms. 

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Blogs of Professor Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(cal) Pathology; : The First Generation of Stars formation at Red shi...

Blogs of Professor Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(cal) Pathology; : The First Generation of Stars formation at Red shi...: http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48016/description/ Authors _; * Mr . Rupak Bhattacharya -Bsc(cal) Msc(JU) of Residence 7/51 ...

Blogs of Professor Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(cal) Pathology; : The First Generation of Stars formation at Red shi...

Blogs of Professor Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(cal) Pathology; : The First Generation of Stars formation at Red shi...: http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48016/description/ Authors _; * Mr . Rupak Bhattacharya -Bsc(cal) Msc(JU) of Residence 7/51 ...

The First Generation of Stars formation at Red shift Z-0 and when did they lit up from the dark Matter

http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48016/description/

Authors_;

* Mr. Rupak Bhattacharya-Bsc(cal)Msc(JU) of Residence 7/51 purbapalli,Po-sodepur, Dist 24 parganas(north),Kol-110,West Bengal, India**ProfessorPranab kumar BhattacharyaMD(cal) FIC Path(India); Professor and Head of Department of Pathology [course coordinator of DCP course of  West Bengal University of Health sciences(WBUHS); member secretary of  Board of Studies for DCP course and member of Board of Studies for undergraduate, Post graduate & Doctoral courses in Pathology Discipline  of WBUHS],School of Tropical Medicine, 108 CR Avenue ,Kolkata-73, West Bengal , India,** Miss Upasana Bhattacharya- Student, Mahamayatala, Garia, kol-86, Only daughter of Prof.PK Bhattacharya ***Mr.Ritwik Bhattacharya B.com(cal) of Residence 7/51 Purbapalli, Po-Sodepur, Dist 24 parganas(north) , Kolkata-110,WestBengal, India **** Mrs. Dalia Mukherjee BA(hons) Cal, Swamiji Road, South Habra, 24 Parganas(north) West Bengal, India**** Miss Oaindrila Mukherjee- BA(hons)cal Student,  ****Miss Ayshi Mukherjee –Student of residence Swamiji Road, South Habra, 24 Parganas(north), West Bengal, India ***Miss Rupsa Bhattacharya and ***Mr Somyak Bhattacharya BHM(IGNOU) Msc student(PUSHA) of 7/51 Purbapalli PO-Sodepur Dist 24 Parganas(north) Kolkata-110 West Bengal, India and Mrs Runa Mitra of BK Mitra Social Worker Barrackpore 

Age of Universe & Hubble constant=The universe started at 20x10¹⁰ (20,0000 millions years ) ago but there are still uncertainty about the ages of the universe according these authors. Determination of Hydrogen molecule suggest that H~50Km/s^-1MPC^-10H^-1=20x10⁹ years, while age old galactic clusters NGC is 10x10⁹ years and the age of elements obtained from the active isotopes were ~10x10⁹ years. The Freidman and Le -maitre models of universe tell us that the universe however has a finite age and it must be either expanding or contracting. The observation that galaxies are in red shift having special features of shifted to redder wave length in an apparent Doppler recession, strongly support the expanding universe model. Confidence in the Friedman- le-maitre model was strengthening further when Edwin Hubble discovered the near relation between red shift and distances in galaxies in 1929. Hubble discovered a cosmological constant and this constant is proportionally is known widely as Hubble constant. The H(₀) is usually expressed in terms of Kilometers per second per mega Per sec ie 50 Km/s/MPC Hubble constant. The Hubble parameter is defined as H(t)=1/R(t)xdR(t)/dt, where R(t) is the scale factor of the universe. Hubble constant is the current value of that parameter and defined as H₀=H_(now)= velocity/distance and is estimated by measuring the velocity and distance of extra galactic objects. Hubble constant is perhaps the most important parameter in cosmology because it not only provide us the physical scale of the universe which affects the observed absolute size, dynamical mass and luminosity of extra galactic objects but it also provide us estimated age of the universe. The Hubble constant has the units of inverse time. An estimate of the age of the universe is the Hubble time 1/H₀. This is the approximate age of a nearly empty universe one, where expansion had not significantly been solved by its mass energy content. A new Model called Ω=1 model, whereΩ is ratio of the universe mass energy density to the critical value required for binding. In the Friedman- Le maitre models the expansion rate of the universe approaches 0 as time approaches  and the current age of the universe  will be  then(2/3) H₀^-1 is then Age=1/H₀[(1-2q⁰)^-1-q⁰(1-2q⁰)-^3/2 cos h^-1(1/q^0-1)] where the de-acceleration parameter q⁰ is (1/2)Ω the ratio of the universe mean mass density to the closer density[ Bhattacharya Rupak and Bhattacharya Pranab Kumar-unpublished data & equation Published  in this blog  Do not try to do plagiarism]

 The age of the universe when H0 is of 50KmS^-1MPC^-1 gives an age of near 20 billions years while an H₀ of 100⁵⁰KmS^-1MPC^-1 in an empty universe roughly correspond to an age of 10 billion years. But the Cepheid variables are the bright stars where brightness varies periodically on time scale between one and hundred days. The period of Cepheid is very tightly correlated with its brightness. So they are the excellent indicators of distances of expanding universe and also the age of the universe. Cephids are most distant galaxies of the observable universe and are figured prominently in the extragalactic distance scale. Cepheid first gave us the idea that other galaxies lay outside our Milky way galaxy. Virgo cephid or Virgo  galaxy clusters are so far farthest, twice as far as the most distant previously measured cephids. They are now measured by Hubble Space Telescope(HST). New example of Virgo cephid H₀=87± 7 Kms^-1MPC^-1. The galaxy there NGC 4571 is in the core of Virgo clusters galaxy. Again Taking H₀ as H₀=87± 7 Kms^-1MPC^-1 as short value ( H₀=80-100 Kms^-1MPC^-1)

 [Picture of Virgo clusters of galaxy  taken by Rupak Bhattacharya]

and long value H₀=50 Kms^-1MPC^-1) will after the age of the universe for 20 billions years to 11.2±0.9 billions years and 7.3±billions years for Ω=0 model and Ω=1 model respectively. The absence of accelerating force for the age of universe is less then 1/H₀ and in standard Big Bang Model is 2/3x1/H₀ 0r 7x10⁹ years. In contrast some stars are thought to be 8x10⁹ years old, .So here starts the crisis regarding the age of the universe what these authors feels. In Freidman Universe model, Freidman et al calculated Ho=80+17 Kms^-1MPC^-1 implying the age of the universe 9x10⁹ years. In that  case, identifying 20 cephid variables in m 100 a beautiful spiral galaxy in Virgo. However if we are ready to accept the theory that age of the universe is estimated from the cosmological model based on Hubble constant, as per this model the age of universe will be 13.7±0.2GYR ie 13.7 billions years old.

Though a big bang like event happened in the early universe, universe spent a period of time in the early phase (1s Planck’s time) in a super cooled stage[About 400,000 years after the Big Bang, that the cosmos had cooled sufficiently for protons and electrons to recombine into atoms]. In the super cooled stage its density (3K) was then dominated by large positive constant vacuum energy and false vacuum. The super cooled stage was then followed by appearance of multiple bubbles inflation. The temperature variation occurred in 3K cosmological background imprinted some 10^~35 second in pre- inflationary stage and grand unified theory [GUT] happened there with generation of trillions and trillions degrees of temperature. As per old inflationary theory of Big Bang, there appeared multiple bubbles of true vacuum and inflation blowed up a small casually connected region of the universe that was some thing much like the observable universe of today. This actually preceded large scale cosmological homogeneity & were reduced to an exponentially small number the present density of any magnetic monopoles, that according to many of particle physicists GUT & would have been produced in the pre-inflationary phase. In the old inflationary theory the universe must be homogeneous in all its direction and was no doubt isotropic. In old inflation theory, the super cooled stage was married by appearance of bubbles of the true vacuum, the broken symmetry of ground state. The model of old inflation theory however was later on abandoned, because the exponential expansion of any super cooled state always present the bubbles from merging and complicate the phase transition. More over in true sense, universe is not totally homogenous but in small scale non homogenous too.

It is very much a well known fact that universe contain a critical density of matter (3K) and infinite space-time. The matters are mostly baryonic and Mixed Dark matter [MDM]. Through COBE satellite studies, we know that the early universe was consisted of mixture of Cold Dark matter and hot dark Matter, which is known altogether as Mixed Dark Matter [MDM]. Most Red shift survey had been either shallow (Z=<0.03), three dimensional survey of few thousands of galaxies covering a large angle or somewhat deeper (Z>0.05). So argument  still persist about the mechanism by which galaxies/first generation stars were formed in the early universe?. The essence of the problem is so high level physics that while galaxies were on average, uniformly distributed through out the volume of the universe, as it should be in the Inflationary “ Big Bang” model, the observed distribution of both optically visible and radio galaxies on the sky were not uniform. But very much patchy( Authors Prof Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya’s Concept only). Does this clumsiness’ represent that the distribution of matter at some primeval stage in the evolution of the universe or there had been some kind of gravitational process?. Ostriker and cowie in the journal Astrophysics (Vol 243; P127; 1981) had suggested that the present distribution of galaxies are in the relic of a dynamic process, in which an outward propagating shock wave created an earlier generation of galaxies. Created galaxies at some places were of high density on shock front. But the problem of their theory to present authors are that the empirical rule, which says that the chance finding of a second galaxy within same value unit at a distance of “S” is proportional to an inverse power of ”S”, which simply means that there is a greater chance that galaxies will be close together than it is far apart. Secondly the distribution of galaxies in the universe may have a fractal three-dimensional structure. The most spectacular of large voids in three dimensions of galaxies is the BOTES VOID. -A region at least 50 MPS in diameter that contain no luminous galaxies. Why? A survey of large-scale galaxies distributions reveals that the “ Large Voids “ were not the exception, but the rule. The survey was the systemic collection of Red Shifts of all galaxies of apparent magnitude brightness than 15.5 in a region measuring 6 degrees by 12 degrees on the sky. These Red Shifts via “Hubble laws” provides us a three dimensional map of galaxy distribution in a limited volume of the universe. Inspection of the map of the galaxy revealed a striking result- large apparently empty, quase spherical “Voids” dominate space & time and galaxies are crammed into the thin shits and ridges in between hole. (Joseph Sick- Nature-Vol.320; P12; 1986) Joseph Sick discussed in his article published in Nature (Vol 320; p12; 1986) that galaxies were distributed in a thin slice of universe to 150 MPC. The red shift measurement of galaxies however reveals a foamy and clustered distribution of galaxies in the universe. Most of them lying on a sheet, surrounding large, almost empty holes up to 50 MPC According to Ostriker and Cowie, an explosion initiated by many supernovas in a newly formed galaxy drive a blast wave, which propagated outward and swept up a spherical shell of ambient gas. A hole was thus evacuated and the unstable compressed shell fragmented to form more galaxies. These in turn developed blast waves and a series of bubbles developed that filled most of the spaces with galaxies (Jeremiath Ostriker & Lennoy Cowie- Astrophysics journal letter Vol 243; P127; 1981) and published independently by Satron Ikeuchi-Astronomical Society of Japan Vol, 33; P211; 1981) But the problem of this hypothesis before present authors are * 1) possibility of the mechanism itself- Supernova exploded and cleared out holes that are tens or in rare cases hundreds of parsec cross? And* 2) did this phenomenon really worked out on scale of MPC? *3) Billions of supernovae were presumed to be exploded coherently over the crossing time of galaxy of about 10⁸ years to yield a vast explosion 4) Next is the missing ingredients which is Gravity. Density fluctuations were present at the beginning of the time in the earliest instants of the” Big Bang gospel” and the gravity amplified the fluctuation into large-scale structure of the universe. Most cosmologists& theoretical physicists believe today that galaxies were originated in this manner rather then by explosive amplification of primordial seeds which themselves must be attributed into initial condition.

A “giant hole” in the universe had been a discovered by astronomers from Minnesota in 2009 January. Investigating an area of the sky known as the WMAP Cold Spot, Lawrence Rudnick and colleagues found a void empty of stars, gas and even dark matter. As AP’s widely circulating report notes, the hole is big: an “expanse of nearly 6 billion trillion miles of emptiness” Astronomers have long known that there are big voids in the universe, and think they can explain them with their theories as to how large scale structures first formed.[ Daniel Cressey” Plenty of nothing - August 24, 2007The Great Beyond Nature.Com http://blogs.nature.com/cgi-bin/mt/mt-tb.cgi/3329].our Galaxy, the Milky Way, contains also disks of ‘dark matter. Dark’ matter is always invisible but its presence can be inferred through its gravitational influence on its surroundings. Dark matter particles is neutral it does not couple directly to the electromagnetic field, and hence annihilations straight into two monochromatic photons (or a photon and a Z boson) are typically strongly suppressed. γ-rays can be a significant by-product of dark matter annihilations, since they can arise either from the decay of neutral pions produced in the hadronization of the annihilation products, or through internal bremsstrahlung associated into charged particles, with annihilations into charged particles, interactions of energetic leptons. In the Lattanzi & Silk models the annihilation results in two neutral Z bosons Or a pair of W+ and W. bosons, and the dominant source of γ-rays is neutral pion decay. Form_ = 4.5 TeV, every annihilation results in  26 photons with energies between 3 and 300GeV.

Physicists today believe that dark matter makes up 22% of the mass of the Universe (compared with the 4% of normal matter and 74% comprising the mysterious ‘dark energy’). But, despite its pervasive influence, even today no-one is sure what dark matter consists of. It was thought that dark matter forms in roughly spherical lumps called ‘halos’, one of which envelopes the Milky Way and other spiral galaxies. Stars and gas are thought to have settled into disks very early on in the life of the Universe and this affected how smaller dark matter halos formed.  Such a theory suggest that most lumps of dark matter in our locality actually merged to form a halo around the Milky Way. But the largest lumps were preferentially dragged towards the galactic disk and were then torn apart, creating a disk of dark matter within the Galaxy. The presence of unseen haloes of Dark matter had long been inferred from high rotation speed of Gas and stars in outer part of spiral galaxies. The volume of density of these dark matter decreases less quickly from the galactic center than does heat luminous mass such as that in stars meaning that dark matter dominates the mass from the center of galaxies. A spiral galaxy is composed of thin disk of young stars called( population I stars) whose local surface brightness falls exponentially with cylindrical distances from galactic center and with height above galactic plane.

 The concept of biasing the formation of large scale structure of universe was first introduced by Nick Kaisar in journal of Astrophysics (Peacock .JA &Heavens A.F- Monday Nottingham. Royal Astronomical Society Vol 217; P805; 1985 &BardenJ. Bond .Jr, Kaiser. N. Eszalay –Journal of Astrophysics). Galaxies were presumed only to form in the rare peaks of an initial gaussian distribution of density fluctuation. The average density of universe is roughly 10³¹gcm^-3 which is less than 10% of critical Density( K) of present universe.[ The matter of which universe is made of 42.3% is CDM matter and 73% is dark energy] Density fluctuation peaks that occurred in a potential large-scale cluster acquired with slight boost that enabled galaxies to form. The biasing hypothesis enhanced the large-scale structure that developed as gravitational forces amplified the initial fluctuations. Biasing hypothesis enabled stimulation of a universe containing “cold Dark Matter” at the critical density, with observational determination of density perturbation of the universe. Density Fluctuation was present at the beginning of Time in the earliest instants of the Big Bang and the Gravity amplified the fluctuations into large-scale structure of our universe. The “Voids “ were not really voids but contained matter that had some how failed to become luminous. The Dark matter was more uniformly distributed than the luminous matter and does not respond to most of astronomical tests. The universe is now populated with non-luminous component of matter (Dark Matter) made of weakly interacting massive particles which does cluster in galactic scale and designated Ω_DM≈0.15-0.35. The dark matter was weakly interacting and was clustered in all scale (hence labeled as cold). It selectively formed galaxies at an early epoch in the rare density peaks. The Cosmic Back ground Explorer study announced on 18^th nov’1990 that COBE had used its liquid helium cooled detectors to make stunningly accurate measurement of BIG Bang after glow .The COBE study was based on microwave background radiation that bathes every object in the universe with a cool wash of photon 2.7K. COBE study conferred that the Big Bang was a remarkably smooth and homogeneous event. The COBE study consistently pegged its temperature at about 2.7 K_ what was predicted by Standard Big Bang Model which holds that radiation was emitted by cosmic fire ball just a few hundred years after the Big Bang moment it self and cooling off ever since then. George Smoot[2006 Nobel Laureate in Physics] and his colleagues of Barkley university used differential microwave radiometer to look for anisotropic variations in the brightness of radiation from point to point of the sky. They presumably corresponded to density variation in the cosmic plasma shortly after the Big Bang and these variation are in turn presumably the clumps of matter that CONTRACTED BY GRAVITY TO FORM THE GALAXIES. The problem was that anisotropies if they existed at all, were so weak that it was hard to see now that how they had contracted into much of galaxies. Any clump that was going to form a galaxy needs to be heavy enough to fight cosmic expansion which tends to pull the material apart almost as fast as gravity can pull it together. COBE showed no anisotropy at all to an accuracy of one part in 10⁴to one part 10⁵ and it was DARK MATTER. This Dark matter consisted of some kind of massive but weakly interacting elementary particles produced in the Big Bang. The cosmic back ground explorer study(COBE) satellite study was undertaken by leadership of George Smoot considers the Big Bang very seriously. Microwave Background Study also provided BIG Bang COBE study had spotted millionth of a degree variations in the temperature of microwave left over from Big Bang traces of the early universe .Images of the cosmic microwave background, the radiation left over from the Big Bang, provide the earliest snapshots of the cosmos—from when it was only about 400,000 years old only  The model of MDM of the universe is consistent with homogeneous inflation theory and large-scale density fluctuation and galaxies distribution that happened in the early universe. It was the Merry Gelman, who first described the nature of earliest particles in the universe. According to her “ it was quark particles in quantum theories.” Actually speaking, the quest for the early Universe had provided the particle physicists with an unrivalled accelerator of high-energy particles. The Grand Unification Theory (GUT) based on ‘Gauge Symmetry” say that Proton (Nucleon) should decay with half-life of at most 10³¹ Years. But while isolating  the rarest events due to  spontaneous decaying of protons, extensive shielding from atmospheric “ Muon” produced by cosmic rays showers were also regarded and primary result once was reported at Geneva, Switzerland. This experiment was carried out us provided in deep underground Kolar Gold field, Kamoka. This experiment provided us the most sensitive limit so far, that the half-life of proton is 1.5x 10³²years. This half-life of proton is close to the age of the elements obtained from Radioactive isotopes ~10X10⁹years.This experiments had great implications to astrophysicists in that 1) possible explanation of ratio of proton to photon in the universe. Since the photons now seen in 3K-background radiation are the remnants of equal numbers of particles and antiparticles created during the thermal equilibrium of first instants of the Universe. This particle was Merry Gelman’s quark particles and its antiparticles were antiquarks. Today’s observed proton [matter] represent an excess of matter after antimatter. This is the asymmetry in Universe. This asymmetry probably had arisen naturally after 10^-35seconds of initial Big bang. However Madsen and Mark Tailor gave the concept of another particles in the primordial universe. The name of their particles is ‘ Neutrinos”. There are broadly three (3) species of ‘Neutrinos”.  I) Electron neutrinos 2) Muon neutrinos 3) and tat neutrinos. To start the universe i.e. before nucleosynthesis, neutrinos should have a zero mass, which can support at least a hypothesis and theories of large-scale structure of universe. According to Maiden and Tailor, the Dark Matter of which this universe consisted of were the neutrinos and not the quarks.

How did the cosmic Dark Age ended and when did the first star lit up in the universe in a few hundred millions years after the Big Bang?

 According to the standard Model of Big Bang Star formation in the early universe was very different from the present now. Star today form in the giant clouds of molecular gas and dust embedded in the disk of large galaxies like our milky ways. Where as the first stars evolved inside “Mini holes” agglomerates of primoriadial gas and dark matter with a total mass of millions times of our Sun.  Another difference arises for the initial absences of elements, other then hydrogen and helium that were synthesized in the big bang. Gas clouds today be efficiently via radiation emitted by atoms molecule or dust grains that contain heavy elements. Because the primoridial gas lacked those coolants it remained comparatively hot. For gravity to overcome when the higher thermal pressure, the mass of all first stars must had been larger as well. The emergence of first stars fundamentally changed the early universe at the end of cosmic dark ages. Owing to the high masses these stars were copious. They also produced many ultraviolet photons that were energetic enough to ionize hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe. Thus began the extended process ”re-Ionization” which transformed the universe from the completely cooled and dark material state into fully ionized medium. Observation of CMB due to scattering of CMB photons of free electrons, phase constrains in the onset of re-ionization. How the first stars formed and how they affected the evolution of cosmos assumes that dark matter is made up of WIMP-yet undetected because they interact with normal matter only via gravity and weak nuclear interactions. A possible WIMP candidate is the Neutrions particles, the lightest super partner in mass super symmetry theory but not zero mass particles. Super symmetry postulated that for every known particle there must be a super partner thus affectively doubling mass of the elementary particles. Most of the super particles that were produced after the Big Bang (including Rupak particles also] were unstable and decayed. The neutrinos is expected to be rather massive having roughly the mass of hundred of protons, so are a part of cosmos.

 Most of the matter in the universe did not interact then with light except gravitationally. These dark matter assumed to be very intensively cold, that is its velocity dispersion was sufficiently small for density perturbation imprinted in the early universe to persist in a very small sale. Dark matter has yet to be detected in the human laboratories. However  there might exist some viable dark matter candidates from particle physics that were not cold. They may be termed as Warm Dark Matter(WDM) as per present authors .Warm dark matter particles had intensive thermal velocities and there motion quench the growth of structure bellow a “ free streaming scale”{ the distances over which a typical WDM particles travel}, which depend on the nature of the particle, because small and dark haloes do not form better then free streaming scale. The dark matter haloes that formed the galaxies in a WDM model had far less substructures and were less concentrated as compared to the cold dark matter(CDM) counterparts. The first generation of stars in the universe formed when primoridial gas compressed by falling into these small dark matter potential wells. Large scale partner in the spectrum of density perturbation causes progenitors of present day clusters of galaxies to be among the first objects to condense out of the initially almost smooth mass distribution.

 Lang Gao & Tom Thennus[science 317:14^th Sept:Page1527:2007] did studied the early star formation in the red shift Z=0 and they concluded that pristine gas heat and it falls into the dark matter potential Well [halos) cools radiatively because of formation of molecular hydrogen and became self gravitating. They told  another important particle- called- Gravitinos_ a popular WDM candidate particle with mass M_WDM=3Kev^-a.    a free streaming particle of few +_ evs of kelopersec and first stars at red shift Z~200 and the growth structure re-simulation in the  led to a pattern of filaments and sheets which is familiar form the local large scale distribution of Galaxies. In assumed Gaussian spectrum of density perturbation appropriate for an inflationary model lead collapse along  one(sheet) and two(filaments) direction before formation of Haloes. Altogether the large scale filamentary pattern is very similar in CDM &WDM. This structure of filaments themselves were very different. The CDM filaments fragmented  later into numerous nearly spherical high density regions(haloes) and WDM filaments fragmented at red shift Z=23.34 when universe was 140 millions years old. Gas and Dark matter accreted perpendicular and to filament axis. Dark matter particles falling into filaments performed damped oscillations as the potential well deepened. Baryons did not under go orbit but gas compressed to a temperature T~7000K atγ~ 20Pc. Rapid build up of H2 induced cooling and gas started to dominate the density.
 See the following Links also
http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48016/description/
http://phys.org/news162651549.html
http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/content/378/2/449.full.pd
http://www.firstgalaxies.org/the-early-universe
http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48016/description/

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 Sd/ Professor Pranab kumar Bhattacharya

Blogs of Professor Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(cal) Pathology; : The evolution of Spiral Galaxies in the universe –...

Blogs of Professor Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya MD(cal) Pathology; : The evolution of Spiral Galaxies in the universe –..

The evolution of Spiral Galaxies in the observable universe – Author’s views

Authors_;

    * Authors are_:
*Mr. Rupak Bhattacharya-Bsc(cal), Msc(JU), of residences 7/51Purbapalli, Sodepur, Dist 24 Parganas(north) Kol-110,West Bengal, India**ProfessorPranab kumar Bhattacharya- MD(cal), FIC Path(Ind), Professor and HOD of Pathology convener in-charge of DCP and DLT course of WBUHS, , Calcutta school of Tropical Medicine, 108, CR Avenue, KOlkata-73 , West Bengal, India, Ex- Professor and HOD  Ophthalmic pathology, RIO KOl-73, Ex professor of Pathology WBUHS and EX Add. Professor IPGME&R KOl-20 W.B, India** Miss Upasana Bhattacharya – only daughter of Professor Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya of mahamaya Apartment Mahamyatala, Garia kol-84 *Mr.RitwikBhattacharya B.com(cal), *Miss Rupsa Bhattacharya-,* Mr Soumyak Bhattacharya BHM(cal) MSC(student) PUSHA, New Delhi, all of residence   7/51 Purbapalli, Sodepur, Dist 24 parganas(north) ,Kolkata-110,WestBengal, India*** Mrs. Dalia Mukherjee BA(hons) Cal, Swamiji Road, South Habra, 24 Parganas(north) West Bengal, India*** Mrs Dalia Mukherjee BA(hons) Cal cutta university, ***Miss Oaindrila Mukherjee- BA(hons) Student Cal Univ, ***Mr Debasis Mukherjee BSC(cal)  ,Swamiji Road, South Habra, 24 Parganas(north), West Bengal, India           

 There are about 10¹⁸ million of galaxies in the Universe, and there exist vast empty 3D dimensional space-time is between them. How much distance from one galaxy to another? "Cephids" can be used as a distant indicator to about 10 million light years, which is equivalent to 4 million persec. These galaxies are distributed through out the Universe. Galaxies are of different type and configu­rations. Some are spiral galaxies, some are non-spiral galaxies Amongst all the galaxies in the Universe, a small minority of the galaxies are spiral galaxies i.e. disc shaped galaxies (some are again of thin disc and some are of thick disc). There are non spiral galaxies also and most of the galaxies in the Universe are of non spiral (without disc) and majority of them are elliptical galaxies and rare verities are lenticular galaxies. Our "Milky way" is the local group of spiral galaxies. It is our home galaxy. Our Milky way galaxy is a spiral galaxy – a massive and a big galaxy at least 250 billions of solar mass MO and is a disk like of a diameter 100,000 light years. The light at its speed cross from one end to another end takes almost one lack years. It consists beside trillions numbers of stars contain also 10²² planets and thousands of clusters of nebulae (nebulae are of various types like diffuse nebulae, planetary nebulae, supernova remnants, and dark nebulae), supernovas and globular clusters.  The mass of the Milky way is probably in between 750 billion & one trillions of solar mass. Milky way is a spial galaxy of Hubble Sb or Sc type. So Milky Way has pronounced disk component exhibiting the spiral structure and a prominent nuclear region, which is a part of a notable buldge/ halo component. Milky way galaxy belongs to local group, a smaller group of three large and over 30 small galaxies and second largest galaxy in the universe. Milky way galaxy contain many clusters of galaxies. They are 1) Mosiac of Milky way extending from  Saggittarius galaxy to  Cassiopeia Galaxy. 2 Ophiuchus galaxy and 2 globular clusters 3)Theta Ophiuchi 4) Scorpius & saggituris galaxy 5) Serpens 6) starclouds in Sagittarius  7) Sagittarius M8 8) Aquita & Sagittarius M69) Western Aquita 10) Gamma Cygni galaxy 11) Alpha cygni galaxy and so many. The milky way appears to be brightest in the direction of Sagittarius where the galactic center lies. Relative to the celestial equator, the Milky Way passes as far north as the constellation of Cassiopeia and as far south as the constellation of Crux. This reflex the fact that the earth axis of rotation is highly inclined to the normal to the galactic plane The galactic disk of milky way has a diameter of about 100,000 light years, The distance from our Sun to the galactic center of our Milky way is about 27,7000 light years. The center of our galaxy is one of the highest infra Red sources of sky. It is about thousands time brighter in the infrared then in radio wave length. Infra red observation show that the center of our Milky Way is orbiting very rapidly. The center of Milky way is not visible at optical wave length because it is hidden behind numerous clouds of star gas and dusts. However we can view the center of Milky Way at infrared sources as infrared can easily penetrate gas and dusts. The Milky Way contain over 200 billions numbers of stars more massive then our sun. The amount of mass inside suns orbiting only around galactic center is 9.0x10¹⁶M0. The stars in the galactic disk rotate around galaxy’s center, which is suspected to harbor a super massive black hole. There are believed to be four-mazor spiral arm and at least two smaller arms, which all start at the galaxy’s center. They are named as follows 1) Norma arms 2) Scutum arm 3) Sagittarius arm 4) Orion arm 5) Pursues arm 6) outer arm. The distance between the local arm to the next arm’ Peruses arm” is about 65,000 light years. Each spiral arm describes a logthermic spiral. The disk is surrounded by halo of old stars and globular clusters. Our sun is located at an extreme distance of the disk. The disk of the milky way has four spiral arms that we described a little ago. The disk is approximately 300 Pc thick and 30KPc in diameter. It is made up of predominantly of Population I star [see star formation] which tends to be blue stars and reasonably spanning an age range between a million and ten billions years old. The buldge at the center of Milky Way is a flattened spheroid of dimension of 1KPc /6KPc. This is a high density region with population II stars which tends towards red and are very old stars about 10 billions years old. The halo, which is a spherical region surround the disk .It, has low density of old stars mainly in form of globular clusters [each globular clusters consist of stars between 10,000- 1lack]. The halo is believed to be composed of mainly cold dark matter 9CDM) which may extend beyond the edge of the disk. The local group of galaxies is probably millions of light years away from our A.G.N.

When Did the First Cosmic Structures Form as galaxy? Quasars are probably the first cosmic structure probably formed in our cosmos . Quasars are  most distant and distinct objects that astronomers have been able to directly detect. Because of their intrinsic brightness, the most distant quasars are seen at a time when the universe was one tenth of its present age, roughly a billion years after the Big Bang moment . However, astronomers believe that some objects must have formed earlier than quasars, because the ambient gas in the universe is observed to be ionized at a relatively early time, presumably due to ionizing radiation from a population of early objects. Since ionized gas can interact with cosmic microwave background photons, WMAP observations help to elucidate the nature of the ionized gas and the objects that caused the ionization. Since light travels at a finite speed, distant objects are seen as they existed in the past. We see the Sun not as it is now, but how it was just eight minutes ago. (The  so the Sun which we see at a moment time today is eight light minutes away from the Earth). We see the nearby stars as they were several years ago. We see Andromeda, the nearest spiral galaxy as it was roughly 2.5 million years ago how it was . Thus, the most distant objects that we see are the oldest objects that we can directly detect.

 What is Quasars?

Quasars are the most distant distinct objects that astronomers have been able to detect. In a region smaller than our solar system, a quasar  in fact emits more & more light than our total entire Milky Way galaxy emits light.  Can you imagine that ?   But Quasars are again believed to be super massive black holes, whose masses exceed that of a million Suns, and whose pull is swallowing gas and stars from their host galaxies. Then black holes also emits light. They do shine brightly by converting the gravitational energy of the in falling Astronomers and physicists are not till date certain what objects ionized the gas(Mixed dark matter oe WIMP) in the early universe nor do they know at what time this ionization occurred. Some speculate that an early generation of massive stars ionized the gas. Others speculate that most galaxies contain super massive black holes and that the formation of these super massive black holes illuminated the early universe. When Was then Gas Ionized is our question ? While observations of quasars enable astronomers to infer that the gas was ionized within the first billion years of the universe, we need to observe something more distant than quasars to learn when the gas was first ionized: the cosmic microwave background radiation. Since the cosmic microwave background photons were emitted roughly 380,000 years after the Big Bang, much earlier than the photons from quasars, their properties tell us about the subsequent evolutionary history of the universe. Microwave photons move freely through neutral gas, but they scatter off of ionized gas. This scattering reduces the amplitude of fluctuations in the temperature of the cosmic microwave background and produces new "polarized" microwave background fluctuations.

material into light. The most distant quasars are seen at a time when the universe was one tenth its present age, roughly a billion years after the Big Bang

What Ionized the Gas in the Early Universe? Scattered light is often polarized. On a bright day, we see not only sunlight directly from the Sun, but also light that scatters off of dust in the air. This scattered light, or "glare", is polarized and can thus be filtered out by a good pair of polarized sunglasses. Similarly, scattered cosmic microwave background photons are polarized by scattering off of free electrons in the early universe. WMAP is designed to detect polarized photons. In principal, their properties reveal the number of free electrons in the early universe and the ionization history of the universe. This enables astronomers to infer that the first objects in the universe capable of ionizing the gas formed at about 200 million years after the Big Bang. We hope that the time history of the ionization will help determine the nature of these first objects

How the spiral gala­xies were formed? Before formation of the galaxies, there were pre galactic clouds which is consisted of gaseous substance. Sir James Jeans first proposed that when the same density perturbation exist in the homogenous gas clouds and when clouds exceeds a certain limit, the cloud suffer an instability. As a result the cloud begins to collapse. The Jeans critical mass (Mj) was described as follows.

       M_J=10²³(T/U)3/2-1/2p gm

[Where "P" is the density, "T" is the Tempe­rature and fl is the mean molecular weight of cloud. ]

The pre galactic gaseous mass were above the critical mass and as a result this pre galactic gaseous clouds collapsed owing to density perturbation. The mass of discrete such clouds was about 10¹⁴-10¹⁵ MO which is typical for the mass of super cluster in the present Universe. Now the fragmentation process carried on within the super clusters. The denser central region of the collapsing gas cloud collapsed more rapidly than the outer region and became more and more dense. Ultimately it became so compact that instability set in and it was fragmented in pieces. Each individual fragment continued to collapse and was re fragmented and the process went on until star formation set in. Thus Super clusters collapsed and frag­mented resulting cluster of galaxies which in course of time again fragmented into galaxies. -If further fragmentation would continue, one would star clusters from where baby stars generated. If we observe today at high galactic latitude, we can see hydrogen clouds .concentrated in a thin layer around the galactic plane, which is moving with a very fast velocity about 5 Km S^-I. There are several such gaseous clouds with very high velocity up to 200 Km S^-I. The distributions of gases are extremely uneven. It is concen­trated in clouds (dark matters) of different sizes. This cloud matter are probably still in extra galactic system or even in the proto­galactic system. Now, the spiral galaxy system evolution resulted when the protogalactic gasses or clouds detached itself from the surrounding Universe. They then gained angular momen­tum, at the moment of their detachment. There was a minimum radius for the "cell" bellow which it no longer contained the nece­ssary angular momentum. For our spiral galaxy "Milky way" the minimum radius reached, suppose at the time "t" when the radius of the Universe "p" was about 1/25th of the present radius Ro. And that was the time when the "Cell" spiral galaxy had a large amount of angular momentum. There was of course radial stream momentum as well as transverse stream momentum in the ­cell. All these momentum resulted initiation of rotation. The angular momentum in the "Cell" containing cloud gasses gave spiral galaxy due to the collapse of the part of the gas, (Fig-I) It happened probably at the time of about 10⁹ years, a little shorter then the age of the Universe 10¹⁰ years (1000 billion years). The radial stream force should diminish the Universe expansion locally. They will not in 'general eliminate it entirely and so the spiral galaxy will expand some time. But it will also collapse again, due to angular momentum in about again 10⁹ years beyond the present time. Now the question remain to us if the galaxies would be formed where the velocity gradient happened to be favorable for spiral galaxies, then there may be many other areas where no such function was possible. So then, in those areas, we should have direct evidence of inter galactic matter. There must be considerable quantities of C D M matter in the local group galaxies, besides that they concentrated in galaxy. The "Milky way" galaxy is such a spiral arm galaxy. The spiral arm structure of our galaxy can be traced by radio wave -demonstration of interstellar hydrogen at a wave length 21 cm where neutral hydrogen is used as a tracer element to delineate the spiral arm and the galactic disks, in which gasses are largely concentrated. By these study, the position of various concentration of. Hydrogen, which can be seen in each line of sign are indicatated by filled circles. A series of small open circles correspond to a broad peak on the profile indicate a spiral arm. There are significant differences in the neutral hydrogen distribution on the two side of the galaxy. In the outer region, the peaks of the spiral arm are less pronounced on the southern side of the galaxy then they are on the northern side. This galaxy shows multi armed structure. The arm shows geometrical trailing tendency clock wise. The neutral hydrogen is confined mostly in the thin layer in the galactic disc.

 The Active galactic neucleus (AGN) like other spiral galaxies, is the central region of our galaxy. What is present at the center?

It is yet a great puzzle to us. There are many theories. A bright quarser! A black hole! A neutron star! Or globular clusters! The concept that the center of our galaxy might explode with the violence of a bright quarsar, by "Lorry Niven" in his book "Ring World" (Gollancz publishers-1970). Accor­ding to him, this galaxy will turn into a quarsar, and once, the blast of light, electro­magnetic radiations and very high energy particles will reach to us. Since, we orbit round the center of our galaxy, at a distance of about 10 Kilo Persec, then it is however possible that the nucleus of our galaxy had already exploded in the past 30,000 years and we have not yet know about it. The light from such an explosion along with cosmic ray particles will take much long time to reach to us. And if this happened in reality in past time, then the blast particles from the quarser at the center of our galaxy, as soon as will reach to us, will destroy the total civilization. It may happen on any day, any time. The center region of our galaxy, like the central region of other spiral galaxies contain globular clusters. However the feature is consistent with the elliptical galaxies "Spheri­cal type". These globular cluster contain the oldest stars of the galaxy, and their formation was clearly related to the formation of the first component of our galaxy as we have told early, Then one question appears to us "is it the fact that all the galaxies forming, at initial phase were elliptical one? and then under gravitational influence of central retarded core, some of them turned into spiral galaxies? Then another question appears to us, where from the material came for formation of disc of the spiral galaxy?

 How could these globular clusters form at AGN? The another big question!

The Conventional view is that they were produced by collapse of greater region of self gravita­ting gasses that became spiral galaxy as we have shown in above picture (Fig. 1). And if we take the concept of globular clusters at our AGN, there remains no possibility of explosion of our AGN. like that of a "quarser" or "Sey fert galaxies". These bright globular clusters were formed at the earliest stage of the deve­lopment of our galaxy, and these globular clusters are brightest at a distance 30,000 light years. (It is the distance of ours, from galactic center, at some direction). Each globular clusters were formed of tens of thousands of stars, and more than few hundred globular clusters are associated with AGN of our "Milky Way”. The most exciting theory is "Black hole" at the center of our spiral galaxy. Where from the black holes came in center? Then black holes has to be originated in the birth time of the galaxy or in the "Big Bang" time, or the black holes grew from the globular cluster? The x-ray sources have now been identified with globular clusters, and this has encouraged the speculation that there might be a massive black holes like "SgRA" at our galactic nucleus. The Globular clusters show no sign of exploding like "Sey fert" galaxies, or quarsers and may stay retarded for ever as simple massive black hole or perhaps they burst their bounds very soon after the "Big Bang" in the galaxy and settled down into a long life of respectability as quiet collapsed objects. Our spiral galaxy has a dark halo extend­ing 50 KPC to 100 KPC at its center. The shape of the halo is unknown. The gamma ray observatory (GRO) satellite found distri­bution of γ-ray on the sky and the γ ray burst was isotropic. The source of the gamma ray is non solar origin and is either in an extended galactic halo or at cosmological distance. So the most conservative approach is to assume that the halo at the center of our galaxy is of old population of type II accreting neutron stars and thus the halo emits y ray bursts. The distribution of neutron stars have an isotropic distribution in the galactic center. Our galaxy have spiral arms. Successful efforts to trace the spiral structure of our galaxy began in 1940s. Spectroscopic studies show that spiral arms themselves are made of mainly neutral hydrogen gasses and young hot stars. Measuring directly the concentration of hydrogen gas by its emission at 21 cm wave length. Our spiral arms show to contain huge concentration of hydrogen gasses. Other method of tracing the spiral structure is (1) tracing the young stars (0 and B stars). They are so common in our spiral structure, as if they are lighting the path of the spiral structure, like street lamps lighting a twisted road. (2) Co line luminosity of the spiral structure. Hydrogen mass of the galaxy can be calculated from the co line luminosity of a galaxy accordingly _MH2/L’co = (4u/3π G)^1/2(n (H₂)^1/2Tb), where (4μ/3μG)^1/2 =2.1 MΘ (K. KmS^-1Pc²)^-1cm3/2K and n (H2) is the hydrogen density (P Solomon-Nature vol. 356, P. 318-19, 1992). Our galaxy contain trillions of stars.

Our galaxy has a spin rota­tion. Every spiral galaxies does rotate. Elliptical galaxies do not rotate very much. Our "Milky Way" is a very slow rotating galaxy. It rotates in its spiral arm "a few cm", once in every 10 million years. Where from the rotation came? Who set the spiral galaxies to rotate? It is the Soviet Astronomer V.A. Ambartsumian, who gave a theory that gala­xies are formed by a process of ejection from the parent galaxies, by a violent outbursts from the galactic nuclei, he told that spiral galaxies form in pairs, and that when two nuclei from one cosmic gusher to become the new pair of spirals, they split up with opposite rotation, relative to each other due to equal and opposite amount of angular momen­tum. So in that case there must be a link material or link bridge between the two spiral galaxy and each spiral galaxy must contain its companion galaxy. The "Whirlpool galaxy" M51 with its companion is the classical example of such a theory of Ambartsumian. Actually M 51 first revealed the astronomers about the existence of other spiral galaxies in the Universe. It has a very clear, beautiful spiral pattern, with bright young stars, edged by a lane of dark material, sweeping out from the center in two opposite arms. This M 61 has a bridge material which extends from one of the spiral arm to its companion galaxy, small and bright, made of same kind of materials. The spiral arm of M51 is radio spiral, and two strong spiral arms running along the inner edge of the spiral pattern of bright young (0 & B stars) stars. The spiral arm contain great quantities of neutral hydrogen gas, like ours "Milky way". The radio evidence also clearly reveals that lane of hydrogen gasses extended across the bridge to its companion galaxy. This compa­nion galaxy makes the end of one of the two major spiral arms. But the difficulties of Ambartsumian theory is that our galaxy and majority of spiral galaxies has no companion galaxy like M51

Our spiral galaxy is not any thing new or special in the Universe. Besides our "Milky way", there are at least 63 spiral galaxies (Catalogued so far) known, who have velo­cities 800 Kms.l. Spiral structures has also variability, some are tightly wound, others are open spirals. IRAS study has detected a spiral galaxy with a distant red shift Z=2.286. It is IRAS 10214+4724 galaxy with most intrinsically luminous objects in the universe α=10¹⁴LΘ (LΘ=Solar luminosity) The total mass of neutral molecular hydro­gen in the IRAS 10214+4724 is 2-6 X 1011 M0. This mass is compatible to total mass of a large spiral galaxy. "Co luminosity is recent technique to estimate the H2 mass in the spiral galaxy, and IRAS 10214+4724 galaxy has a Co luminosity at least 20 times than that of local group galaxy. Its hydrogen mass is roughly equal to total mass of large spiral galaxy like the "Milky way" (P.M. Solomon ­Nature vol 356, 26th March P. 318-19, 1992). 90% of the galaxy contain stars and 10% gasses (The total agglomeration of molecular gas in Milky way is 10⁶-10⁷ M0).

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 Tribute & Acknowledgement- To our late parent diseased late Mr. Bholanath Bhattacharya B.com(cal) FCA(India) SAS(India) and  late Mrs Bani Bhattacharya House wife of their residence 7/51 Purbapalli, Po-Sodepur, Dist 24 parganas (north) , Kolkata-110,WestBengal, India,  for their initial teaching  for us about the universe, Big Bang galaxy stars and the eternity 

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