Author-:
Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya
MD (University of Calcutta) Fic Path , WBMES (retired)
Ex Retired Professor and Head, Dept. of Pathology department, Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, 108,C.R.Avenue, Kolkata -700073, West Bengal, india
Department of Health and Family Welfare (WBMES wing)Government of West Bengal Equivalent officiating Rank retired -: "Special Secretary " to the Government of West Bengal
Ex- Principal of JMN Medical College, JMN Educational and Research Foundation, Chakdaha, District- Ranaghat ,West Bengal India
At present - (since 6.02.2023): Posted as
Professor and Head of Pathology Department ( every year renewal contractual but full time),
JIS School of Medical Sciences and Research ( under JIS University , Nilgange, Agarpara, 24 parganas North )santragachi, Howrah District, West Bengal
Residence -:
Mahamaya apartment, Block -B, flat 3, 2nd floor ,Mahamayatala, 54 NSC Bose Road, Post office- Garia , Kolkata 700084, West Bengal india
Email profpkb@yahoo.co.in( mostly used)
whatsapp & mobile -: 9231510435.
This article already published
1) Published in Elsevier SSRN group journals under URLhttps://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4412233
And in E journal of Legal services india.com
2https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-10805-microfinance-companies-in-india-are-not-at-all-a-blessings-it-is-rather-a-big-curse-it-should-be-stopped-immediately-by-law.html
MICROFINANCE was once meant to lift people (basically women) to bring out of poverty, but many women ultimately saying today , it's become rather a curse for their life , Wolf for many indian citizens, specially for poors, economically week sections citizens ,( illiterate , semi illiterate people, job less people, small/ smallest scale business enterprise people,marginal firmers, marginal people, small grocery shopkeepers and for startup small business people, street hawkers , daily wage labourers, small traders ) and they must be much more cautious about evil effects of accepting / taking any microfinance loans personally or and on gosthi basis any usurious private loans from various Financial NGOs, companies, Non Banking Financial corporation ( NBFC) / organisation/ any usurious private loan providers companies ( registered under company act 1956 or on section 8 of 2013 company acts ) who don't possess proper Reserve Bank of India's ( RBI) permission papers for doing money lending business in any state of India including in West Bengal as like "Bandhan Bank" in West Bengal ,"Ashirbad Microfinance Ltd , "Nigam Sudha Microfinance Ltd " ,"Progoti Microfinance company Ltd," " Lokenath Trusts", "Dishari', "Swayam Krishi Sanstha" ,"Janalakshmi Financial Services", "Ujjivan", "Adani Financial Services", "Small Finance Bank", "Utkarsh Small Finance Bank", "Arohan Financial Services", "Fusion Microfinance", "Equitas", "Small Finance Bank", "Grameen Koota Financial Services", "UGRO Financial Services". "ASA international India microfinance Ltd ", "Sarala" ,"Mohor, "SKS Microfinance Ltd", "Village", "Share Microfinance" "Annapurna Finance" ," SKS microfinance, Utkarsha small finance Bank ' ,etc etc for some examples ( there are about 96 or more Microfinance institutions operating in India and 35,473 NBFC companies in India with or without RBI permission to carry on money lenders business as up to 2013 records and 46 MFI companies working in state of West Bengal ) and many such MFI / NBFC are operating presently in the West Bengal State of India and in other provinces of India too. Microfinance institutions or MFI can be set up with minimum Rs 5 cores capital ( to be deposited with RBI) and they can lend money when one borrower's household annual income is maximum from Rs 1,20,000 to Rs 300,000 INR and maximum limit of such loans must be 50% of monthly household income once ,as per Reserve Bank of India guideline 1st April 2022 ( memo no DoR.FIN.REC.95/03.10.038/2021-22 dated 14.03.2022) and interest rate must not be more than 20% per year ( ie if a borrower take Rs 20,000/ as loan, he or she will pay monthly Rs 970/ in 24 instalments including both Principal amount and interest amount loan as per annexure II of para 6.3 of RBI guidelines order dated 14.03.2022, mentioned above ) and they must have licence from RBI as permission to operate as non Banking money lenders. MFI or microlenders may take loans from Nationalised Bank and they pay 14% maximum interest for their loan per year. Those money lenders, either MFI or NBFI companies or usurious private money lenders are illegal by Indian laws ( without RBI permission or registration and not following RBI guidelines) and to be informed to local police by General Diary or by FIR if operating in a local area Village by villagers or by person who takes such illegal loan from them .
Since 2017 onwards,Microfinance companies without RBI licence are mushrooming in West Bengal state (in urban areas, semi urbans,in rural villages) , putting poor and marginal people in life long distress and trouble, damage, irreparable loss to family providing them loan ( say for 50,000/INR a time ) but with huge illegal percentage interests on weekly or monthly basis ( interest rate of MFI/ NBFC microlenders varies from 30% to 200% yearly ,or weekly or monthly instead of yearly and that the Indian laws does not ever permitted such illegal money lending to any borrowers with that very high interest charge beyond RBI guided interest level ( less than 20% yearly interest maximum for registered MFIs ) for microfinance company ( on yearly basis but never on weekly or monthly basis ) Maximum Microfinance companies have thus today mutated ''to become rather big exploiters of man and woman in society to make their cores and cores of money as their profit, exploiting poor of the poor by their usurious interest rates, providing multiple loans through gosthi ( collection of poor women or men in a group ) given to a borrower without due diligence, lack of transparency, RBI regulation and use of coercive methods for recovery by threats, creating nuisance in front of house, or filing court suits as a frauds or a defaulter or not following their company conditions of loan repayment" ( as per RBI rules 2022, all Recovery Agents ( RA) must fullfill the laid down criteria stated in clause 7.5.1 to 7.5.5 along with local police verification identity and permission for recovery of loan from borrowers and other wise thet can not be appointed as field workers or RA) . They often get signed borrowers with their husband in white paper as their company documents and a notebook of taking and paying loan , kept with them( but never with borrowers). Thus a borrower never knows how much of the principal loan and how much of principal and interest they cleared of their taken loan and they are in loan debt trapped .
In my opinion ,and in many civilised conscious people opinions , these all microfinance companies are really a big curse toward poor socioeconomic class people who are/ were however in need of cash money to run or to help their family' for emergency medical treatment, to run a small business, from where they earned their previous livelihood,and they took loan under toughest situation, they faced during COVID -19 periods of State/ pan India lockdown ,they were bound of taking loan with very high percentage of weekly interest personally or through forming gosthi of 25/ 40 illiterate or semi illiterate married women and poor men or to those and these company' s salaried field agents or dalal completely misguided these needy people or their less educated/ less intelligent wives , children (whose house men lost their service and or faced loss in their small business or in cultivation during the covid pandemic period of 2019 November to 2022 December or experienced loss in the business and cultivation) about the false benefit of microfinance or gosthi loans. These microfinance companies thus making lured to these people of urban, suburban, villages people of West Bengal/ india to take easy loan with very high unusual interest rate (>25% to 35% yearly and 120% to 200% monthly interest rate by usurious money lenders (reference no 5 ) and when covid 19 is now almost over in 2023, market opened ,these microfinance companies salaried people/ Recovery agents/ Dalal kicking doors giving huge pressure, threatens to persons/ family members who took loan ( borrowers) from their companies by himself/ or by herself name ( later bounded to draw loans in names of others members ie within gosthi peoples) and then from outside loan providers and as a result it became vicious cycle for them to take continuous loans after loans from neighbours and these people are moving around paying interests of such loans only but never the principal amount of loan they borrowed . Ultimately they are selling all their minor assets including wedding gold , even utensils and facing domestic violences etc " …I had to sell off my wedding ornaments, my 20 years old unmarried daughter's gold ornaments, keeping on taking loans after loan to pay only interest part from one to another private money lenders to clear up my MFI loan interest- Mrs Swapna Bhattacharya -wife of Ritwick Bhattacharya - a married 48 years old women,- mother of a 20 years old daughter, a woman borrower of residence- Purbapalli Village , Post office- Sodepur , District -24 parganas (north ) ,PS -Khardha,Kolkata -110, says me with a sad smile and next bursting into tears . " ….I had to take microfinance loan ( RS 60,000/INR) first from Bandhan Bank , then from Ashirwad Microfinance Ltd , first time in 2019 Oct with only knowledge of my husband Ritwik, but others members of my in laws family were in total darkness, after being members of a ( 22 married women group) gosthi of our locality "Bankimpally " at, Sodepur ,under Panihati municipality constituency ,being lured for easy to get loans and being highly convinced by field agent's of Bandhan Bank and Ashirwad Microfinance Ltd in sodepur and khardah, panihati and by gosthi members, to feed and for medical treatment purpose of my 84 years old mother ( Mrs Shanti Adhikari ,wife of late Anil Adhikari, who is living alone ) and to support and look after my two younger sister's (Savita Chakraborty wife of krishnendu chakrabarty & Bandana Dey wife of late Raju Dey ) family, during lock down periods of COVID- 19 ( 2019 -22) and to meet up MFI company's interest, i had to borrow loan successively from Mr. Tapan Saha of Loknath Trust ,Mr . Chandan Saha of Nigam Sudha Microfinance Trust , Unity Welfare Society , Progoti , Beraberi Deshari, jiban Utthan Microfinance Ltd operating ( I didn't knew that these MFI / NBFC companies / usurious money lenders are illegal money lenders companies by laws without RBI permission to operate in field ) operating in Sodepur , 24 parganas( north) ,Kolkata-110, West Bengal. I am now a debt trapped woman of around Rs 14 lakh INR . My husband Ritwik Bhattacharya of same address with B.Com ( Calcutta University) degree ,50 years old ( he suffered in 1999 to 2005 from bipolar psychiatric illnesses- schizoid bipolar mood disorders and was treated at Institute of Psychiatry at SSKM hospital Kolkata -20, with antipsychotics drugs lithium,risperidone , valproate, SSRI drugs by his eldest MD doctor brother ) also was trapped and did loan from others non financial banking companies/ organisation when in 2020-2021 his small trade a start up business units ( within our home premises as his rehabilitation program -once set by his eldest doctor brother for him to sustain our life and to get him engaged in working) run in losses during the COVID -19 pan and partial lockdown period in 2020 March to 2022 October and he had to pay salaries and bonus to his four marginal labours in lock down and compensation money settlement to a labour for loss of part of his index finger in a sudden machine accident, etc, though he could not sell his finished products in local markets for covid 19 lockdown and his loan status to these NBFC companies now reached to another Rs 10 lakh ( as he stopped EMI since 2020 and now he has been summoned by court of laws for a settlement on 20th March 2023 ) . We both are now in great financial trouble for MFI and NBFC loans as their recovery agents and recovery field workers are almost daily knocking the door and we became ill doing overworking both day and night times since October 2022 to repay the loan . What I realised now that we did a great blunder in our life ,trusting the field agents of Bandhan Bank and Ashirbad microfinance ltd trusting that Microfinance loans are helping for empowerment of poor women and their families . Rather it is a big curse for poor families. I had to sell our kitchen utensils , all machines Ritwick purchased for his business and sometimes I had to deny our food for days, unless we had some kind of monthly financial support of Rs 23,000/ per month from my husband's eldest brother-, a MD Pathology doctor by his profession ( now a WB state govt. pension holder ) to feed us by sending his bank interest part of money ( he had as his superannuation benefits in march 2021), to sustain our life , so that we can make these loan repayments …." .
And I had to steal average rupees 8000, to 10,000 since 2020 onwards even from his sent money too, to pay up interest to personal private money lenders through my sister's , without knowledge of any one in my in-laws house. A great sin i had to do to meet up loan interest
There are many such stories ( at least 54 studied cases by this author) with me in Kolkata, Howrah , Coach Bihar ,Nadia, North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Murshidabad ( ref no 12) , Nadia, Jalpaiguri districts of West Bengal state .
Microfinance was once meant to lift up people out of poverty, but the women of Howrah, ( in Shibpur Constituency ( ref no 3) ,in Panihati constituency, in Beldanga Village of East Burdwan ( reference no 10) say it's become now a big curse for many families even of entire village , who are in microfinance or NBFC debt Trap
This city, West Bengal, has been overrun by loan agents/ field workers from India's illegal Microfinance or NBFC industries . In the real world ,instead of women getting empowered MFI are causing them in life trouble from microfinance companies, because there is no system of finding out whether beneficiaries have also taken loans from other MIF institutes or private usurious loans to clear up their loans. So the borrower goes on taking loans after loans from one institute to others or from personal/ private illegal usurious money lenders with very high interest.They are bound to do that. Then they are falling into severe debt traps of 15 to 20 lakhs for say only 1.2 lakh / INR loan from a microfinance company from Ashirbad or Bandhan Bank . This author have personally seen some people changing their addresses overnight, absconded, attempting suicide by various means , selling their all properties to get rid of these debts .He saw microfinance loans are root cause of domestic violence between husband and wife also . The microfinance companies give loans mostly to married women. Most of the married women must be at loggerheads with their husbands to repay the loans. This gives rise to domestic violences and injury, even head injuries .
From the study at grass-root level , this author personally felt that very few people had actually benefited from this initiative of microfinance loan in the Indian context . It is rather few trillion dollar business of companies based on poor families of india who needs cash money
Below are a few examples of what happened for microfinance loans that destroyed families. Most of these microfinance companies are not however licensed or registered or have permission under Reserve Bank of India for operating their business in a state which is mandatory ( except Recently Utkarsha microfinance , Bandhan Bank after deposition of 500 crores. Bandhan however started its business with 2 lakh INR and three staff in 2009 as a small MFI unit and now owner of 10 thousands of crores INR loan and where from that huge profits came to Bandhan Bank owner Mr Chandra shekhar Ghosh? ) and doing all illegal transactions of money with NGO licence or NBFC licences under section 8 of company act 2013 or under 1956 company act which do not permit for money lending business in India.
West Bengal is one of the top five states in India in terms of the gross loan portfolio and out of ten districts with high amount of loans, nine—North 24 Parganas , South 24 Parganas, Murshidabad, Jalpaiguri, Nadia, Bardhhaman, Hooghly, Howrah and Cooch Behar— are from West Bengal where these microfinance companies operate through their salaried feild people or agents field workers , targeting illiterate semi literate poor married women of any locality in the name of social or families welfare women empowerment women upliftment with their loan through a gosthi system of 12/25/40 women.
According to a report published in Business Standard, “In its state-wise ticket size and macroeconomics analysis, the agency said it has observed that the average outstanding per unique borrower is the highest in States of West Bengal and Assam, and this has been the case at least for the past three years (2019-2023)”. It also reports that “40-50 per cent of the microfinance loan portfolio in both Assam and West Bengal are from one or two institutions. (sic, Bandhan, Ashirbad )” And it indicates the monopoly of 2/ or 3 institutions in the microfinance sectors.
Tamil Nadu State has displaced West Bengal to emerge as the largest State in terms of the outstanding profit portfolio of microfinance loans. According to MFIN Micrometer Q4 of FY 2021-22, a quarterly report published by Microfinance Institutions Network (MFIN), the gross loan portfolio (GLP) of Tamil Nadu was as of March 31, 2022 stood at ₹36,806 crore. It was followed by Bihar (₹35,941 crore) and West Bengal (₹34,016 crore). At the end of Q3 of FY2022, West Bengal topped the chart with the highest outstanding profit portfolio of loans at ₹32,880 crore, followed by Tamil Nadu (₹32,359 crore).
The top 10 States (based on total microcredit universe) constituted 82.4 per cent of total GLP of the industry. West Bengal was followed by Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra. According to the report, around 64 per cent of the microfinance portfolio is concentrated in the East, Northeast, and Southern regions of India.
The 41st issue of the Micrometer report said the microfinance industry served 5.8 crore unique borrowers, through 11.3 crore loan accounts. The overall microfinance industry has a total GLP of ₹2,85,441 crore as of March 31, 2022, an increase of 10 per cent year-on-year (YoY) from ₹2,59,377 crore as of March 31, 2021.
Lender-wise distribution of microfinance loan-:
Lender-wise distribution of micro-loans shows that 12 banks held the largest share of the portfolio in micro-credit with a total loan outstanding of ₹1,14,051 crore, or 40 per cent of the total microcredit universe. NBFC-MFIs are the second largest providers of micro-credit with a loan amount outstanding of ₹1,00,407 crore, accounting for 35.2 per cent of the total industry portfolio. Small finance banks (SFBs) have a total loan amount outstanding of ₹48,314 crore, accounting for 16.9 per cent, followed by non-banking finance companies (NBFCs) at 6.9 per cent share. Other MFIs account for 1 per cent of the universe.
The report noted that the proportion of NBFC-MFI portfolios in the universe portfolio increased by 4.1 per cent to 35.2 per cent as of March 31, 2022, though banks continued to be the main contributors. The geographical distribution of the portfolio also witnessed a change with a decrease in the share of the east and northeast region of India by 3.3 per cent, while the share of the south and north regions increased by 1.3 per cent each.
“The microfinance industry has shown good progress during Q4 of FY2022, building on the momentum profit created in Q3. The portfolio quality has improved significantly as compared to the end of Q1 FY2022, when the second wave of Covid-19 had caused widespread stress across the country,” Alok Misra, CEO & Director, MFIN said, in a statement. “The announcement of harmonised regulations for microfinance, near normalisation of collection efficiency and recent verdict of the Supreme Court stating that NBFC regulation is under the sole purview of the RBI are hugely positive trends, which will see good growth in 22-23,” he added.
Several previous studies conducted all over the world concluded, where microfinance has been applied, showed that microfinance companies' microcredit loan was not as effective as it was expected in getting poor people and their families out of poverty . Rather it submerged many family members in tremendous financial curse and destroyed families who took MFI/ NBFC / private loans . According to the American Economic journal: applied economics; microfinance benefits were rather oversold to the public in relation to their risks, in India, Bangladesh. The research on psycho-social impact on microfinance was not given however enough attention, instead the get out of poverty quickly get a loan to run a small business project was overemphasised, such that negative repercussions of MIF loans were unforeseen.Therefore according to this author microfinance seems to benefit more to the givers of loan ( ie owner of the MIF companies) than to the receivers or borrowers . Many people who have evaluated the impact of microfinance have based it on( ?)financial success , not its social, familial and psychological impact i.e. the pressure of work individuals are under to ensure they pay back the interest of loan. Not enough assessment is done to ensure balance in recovery as it undermines emotional trauma and pressure. Introduction of debt to those with a stable income is such a burden; now imagine introducing debt to vulnerable, overwhelmed individuals facing masses of challenges such as food security and uncertainty. The impact can only be estimated as devastating.
If this author looks back at past in 2010s in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh districts 30 to 45 pepole committed suicide due to microfinance loans, due to coercive method of repayment of microfinance loan by MFI .These suicide were reported from different districts of Andhra Pradesh within 45 days from January 2010 . The story was that MFI companies charged exorbitant interest on the principal amount and borrowers were caught in a situation where they were forced to borrow from another money lender to repay the existing loan . The borrowers were caught in vicious cycle of loans which they can not repay this forcing them to end their life (Ref no 11)
From West Bengal,in 2021, Mr Sadhan Sinha 40 years old (who used to earn Rs 15000 to 2000 a month) of Bindupara Village of Murshidabad District ,West Bengal ( Ref no 4, 6) is another victim example in 2021. He took a loan of Rs 1 lakh from a MIF operating in murshidabad and had been unable to pay his monthly instalments of Rs 3,400 for May and June 2021 and he begged for a few days’ time but recovery agents did not listen. The recovery agents sat down outside the house, using abusive languages and saying they would not leave without collecting the dues. "...My husband felt so humiliated that he killed himself…,” said weeping Mamoni, mother of two sons, aged 18 and 15.( Ref no 12) Sadhan’s decision to take the loan in January 2021 and his subsequent suicide underline the fact that how millions of ordinary Indians were taken unawares by the covid- 19 pandemic’s second wave, blamed partly on the central government’s short-sightedness in prematurely declaring victory over the virus and letting its guard down.The Reserve Bank of India however tried to give all kinds of loan borrowers relief by instructing all banks and all financial institutions to consider a debt recasting, provided EMI dues have been cleared before February 2020 ie before the first state or pan India lock down anounced for COVID-19 by government. But, as Mr Sadhan’s death suggests, not every borrower had access to the relief by these MFIs companies, only because of lack of knowledge and information ,as they are mostly less educated and poor people. While the debt recasting is a prerogative of banks or the micro finance companies or NBFCs , the problem is that most people who are in dire need of the facility don’t know about RBI directions on this issues
There was relief to those borrowers who had opted for loan payment restructuring under the RBI scheme as well. The RBI permitted the MFIs ,NBFCs ,Banks and to all lending entities to modify the plans of repayment of loans and increase the moratorium period minimum by another minimum two years with minimum EMI .The RBI said that after all MFI,NBFC banks ,receive a restructuring proposal from any borrower to repay principal loan, they must have to take a decision on the application of borrowers within 30 days and in favour of borrowers. This will happen when the lending institutions and the borrower will agree to work out a resolution plan according to the capacity of borrowers to repay the loan after maintenance of his family at minimum daily wages he or she earns. After this, the resolution plan must be finalised and implemented within 90 days from the date of invocation( ref 13)
Debt may be good but never in the state of indebtedness! It has both qualitative and quantitative implications. Propensity to debt, especially “indebtedness” is a matter of big concern. Impact of indebtedness varies both in degrees and dimensions. The state of being in debt (indebtedness) covers both personal and behavioural finance and is blended with positive and negative outcomes. On the minor positive end , people who have easy access to money to debt from the bank MFIs may have some chances for temporary financial wellness, provided the money is used for productive , gain business. The negative outcomes of money lending are desertion, huge distress and depression of the indebted consumers. Many times, such incidence results in forced migration as observed in the cases of absconding. The extreme end of indebtedness leads to suicidal tendencies often culminating at self-killing! Such unpleasant incidents potentially affect the present as well as the future of a person. Sometimes the shock of indebtedness cascades down to a couple of generations. Recent agitations of the Tamil farmers, protesting for the announcement of a drought relief package and loan waiver, are evidences to what debt-distress is and what it can do!(14)
Conclusion -:
In conclusion, to me and for Poor's , job less people , illiterate, semi literate people, people of urban, semi urban, rural villages MICROFINANCE COMPANIES IS NOT AT ALL A BLESSING IT IS RATHER A BIG CRUSE. IT SHOULD BE STOPPED IMMEDIATELY and MFI company owners/ their agents ( Money landers ) to be punished for illegal money lending to borrowers with exorbitant high interest rate beyond nationalised bank interest rate or RBI Bank interest rate fixed for Microfinance registered companies with RBI .Government of West Bengal and Govt of India should take interest in sensitising people about the curse of microfinance loan otherwise the poor people will go more poorer and borrower families will be destroyed.
References_:
( URL to read on curses of microfinance loan to the society at large through out india)
Moumita Alam "Microfinance debt trap exploits Bengal villagers" People's Review Friday June 25021
BL Chennai bureau "Tamil Nadu pips West Bengal to become the largest State in terms of outstanding microfinance loan portfolio" The Hindu business line June 15,2022
Muskan Web Top 10 Microfinance in West Bengal December 17 2022
https://www.muskanweb.com/2022/12/top-10-microfinance-in-west-bengal.html
5) soutik Biswas India's micro-finance suicideepidemic BBC News Medak Andhra Pradesh 16 December 2010
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11997571
6)https://www.ijser.org/paper/Microfinance-A-blessing-or-a-cruse.html
7)https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8250239/
8)https://www.muskanweb.com/2022/12/top-10-microfinance-in-west-bengal.html
9) Microfinance - A blessing or a cruse
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 4, Issue 7, July-2013 345ISSN 2229-5518IJSER © 2013 http://www.ijser.org
10)sandip chaudhury West Bengal Share croper dies of suicide due to microfinance debt ,many affected loans News click 22nd February 2022 https://www.newsclick.in/West-Bengal-Sharecropper-Dies-Suicide-due-Microfinance-Debt-Many-Affected-Loans
11) Thirty commits sucide in 45 days to escape microfinance agents The economic Times Oct 15 2010
12)Alamgir Hossain 'Plumber dies by suicide as EMI collection agents squat outside" samsergang in murshidabad The Telegraph 24.06.2021
13) special correspondent "RBI re-opens one-time debt restructuring scheme for individual borrowers "The Telegraph 6.05.2021
14)Pattnaik, Debidutta, Indebtedness – From the Perspective of Commercial Microfinance in India (July 28, 2017). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3010244 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3010244
Published in E journal of legal services in India
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Prof Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya
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4 Graduated from, Department of Commerce, Calcutta University,
5 Student, Department of Biotechnology, Kalyani University, West Bengal, India
7 Graduated, from Department of Science , Calcutta University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
8 School Teacher, Department of Arts, Calcutta University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
9 Service Man, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North
24 Parganas West Bengal, India
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Abstracts
Our home is our own life igalaxy, the "Milky
Way " which consists of trillions and trillions numbers of stars . One of the middle aged, yellow stars is our sun . 400 billions of stars moving with a very complex and orderly grace in our spiral galaxy the Milky Way. In all galaxies there are perhaps as many as many planets as stars i.e 10 11 x 1011 =1022 ,10 billion trillions planets .Some stars are solitary ( though in a binary star formation system) like our sun and most of the stars have their own companions. Systems of stars are commonly seen double, i.e two stars are orbiting one another. Some stars are so close that they touch each other and star staff flow beneath them .Most stars are however separated from one another by vast spacetime. Stars are born and they die too. Some stars went into novas and or in supernovas and are as bright as the entire galaxy that contains them. Some stars end them in blackholes and are invisible even from a few hundred kilometres away . Some stars are in triple star systems, some are in binary star systems. Some stars are blue hot and very young. Some stars are yellow stars. Yellow stars are conventionally middle aged, while red ( red giants ) stars are elderly or dyeing stars. Some stars are in white dwarfs and they are in the final stage of death. Our '' sun " is a second generation star of a binary star formation process, produced by collapse of gases, Interstellar clouds within the framework of spiral pattern, a gaseous cloud which contains material required for nuclear furnaces,appearing inside the star. Stars are formed of giant interstellar mass, molecular clouds, containing trillions and trillions tons of gaseous hydrogen and deuterium ions as they collapse under gravity. Now in the dense clouds containing perhaps ten thousands millions (1010) atoms per cubic centimetre- that represent a much more dense collection of material , rather than gaseous material in stars , how are they converted into bright stars? How the stars were formed in the nebula or in galaxies of the universe? Stars formation is an astronomical puzzle that involves pure poor understanding of how interstellar giant molecular clouds( CDM+HDM) turned into the stars ! stars are formed from protostellar condensation in the star forming regions like Nebulas.
Key words
Age of the universe, Red shift, Hubble constant , cepheids, super cooled stage of universe, voids , COBE,
The age of the universe and Hubble constant -: The universe started at 20 x 1010 (that is 20,000,00 million years) ago but there is still uncertainty about the age of the universe according to the present authors. Determination of hydrogen molecules suggest that H~50km/s~1 MPC OH-2 =20M102 years universe , while age of old galactic clusters NGC is 10M x 102
years and the age of elements obtained from the active isotopes were more than ~10M x102 years . The Friedmann and the Le-Maitre models of the universe tell us that the universe however has a finite age and it must be either expanding or contracting or simulteniously in both expansion and contraction i.e in the Big Bounce( Ref 1) . This observation that the galaxies are in redshift having special features of shifted to red wavelength in an apparent Doppler recession strongly supports the expanding universe model now. Confidence in the Friedmann Le -Maitre model was strengthening further when Edwin Hubble discovered the near relation between redshift and distances in galaxies in 1929. Hubble discovered a cosmological constant and this constant H(0) is popularly is known as Hubble constant, which is usually expressed in terms of kilometres per second per mega per second I.e 50 km/ S/MPC.The Hubble parameter is defined as H(t) =1/R (t) xdR (t)/dt , whereR(t) is the scale factor of the universe. Hubble constant in the current value of that parameter and is defined as H(0)= H(Now ) = velocity/ distance and is estimated by measuring the velocity and distance of extragalactic objects. Hubble is perhaps the most important parameter in cosmology because it not only provides us the physical scale of the universe which affects the observed absolute wise, dynamical mass and luminosity of extragalactic objects but it also provides us with an approximate estimated age of the universe.The Hubble constant has the unit of inverse time. An estimate of the age of the universe, is the hubble time 1/ H0 . This is the approximate age at a nearly empty Universe one, where expansion had not significantly been solved by its mass energy content. A new model of the universe called the Ω=1 model, where Ω is the ratio of the universe's mass energy density to the critical value required for binding. In the Friedmann model, the expansion rate of the universe approach is zero, as time approaches to infinity and the current age of the universe is then (2/3 ) H0-1 then age=1/H0[1-2q0)+1-q0(1-2q0)-3/2σσ=h-1(1/q0-1) where the deceleration parameter q0 is (½) Ω the ratio if you of universe mean mass density to the closer density ( reference Bhattacharya Rupak and Bhattacharya Pranab Kumar unpublished ). The age of the universe when M0 is of 50kmxS-1MPC-2 gives the age of the universe near 20 billion years while an H0 of 10035km S-1MPC-1 in an empty universe corresponds to an age of 13.8 billion years.
Virgo Cepheids -:
But the cepheid variables are the bright stars whose brightness varies periodically on a time scale between one and hundreds days . The period of cepheid is very tightly correlated with its brightness. So they are excellent indicators of the distance of the expanding universe and also the age of the universe and are figured permanently in the extragalactic distance scale. Cepheid first gave us the idea of other galaxies lying outside our Milky Way. Virgo cepheid or Virgo galaxy clusters are so far away , as far as the most distant previously measured cepheids. They are now measured by the Hubble space telescope. New example of Virgo cepheids H0=87+-7kms-1 MPC-1 ..The galaxy there NGC4571 is in the core of Virgo clusters Galaxy. Again H0~=87+-7kms-1MPC as short value and long value H0= 50 kmxS-1MPC-1 will after the age of the universe for 20 billions years to 11.2+-0.9 billions years and 7.3+- billion years for Ω=0 model and Ω=1 model respectively. The absence of accelerating force for the age of the universe is less than 1/H0 and in standard Big Bang model as 2/3x1/H0 or 7x109 years. In contrast some stars are thought to be 8x109 years old. So here starts the crisis regarding the age of the universe. In the Friedmann universe model Freidmann et al calculated H0~=80 +-17kms-1MPC-1 implying that the age of the universe is 9X109 years. In that case, identifying 20 cepheid variables in M100 is a beautiful spiral galaxy in Virgo. However if we are ready to accept the theory that the age of the universe is estimated from the cosmological model based on the Hubble constant as per this model, the age of the universe will be then 13.7+-2GYR I.e 13.8 billions years .
Big Bang ,Supercooled stage, GUT, Vacuum, cold and hot Dark Matter-:
Though a Big Bang like event happened in the early universe ,the universe spent a period of time in the early phase (1S planck's time) in a super cooled stage (about 400,000 years after the Big Bang ,that the cosmos had cooled sufficiently for protons and electrons to recombine into atoms ). In the super cooled stage its density (3K) was then dominated by large positive constant vacuum energy and false vacuum.The supercooled stage was then followed by the appearance of multiple bubbles inflation. The temperature variations occured in 3K cosmological background imprinted some 10-35 second pre inflationary stage and Grand Unified Theory ( GUT) happened there with generation of trillions and trillions degree of temperature. As per old inflationary theory of the Big Bang, there appeared multiple bubbles of true vacuum and inflation blew up a small causally connected region of the universe that was something much like the observable universe of today. This actually preceded large scale cosmological homogeneity and were reduced to an exponentially small number the present density of any magnetic monopoles, that according to many particle physicists GUTs would have been produced in the pre inflationary phase. In the old inflationary theory the universe must be homogeneous in all its directions and was isotropic. In old inflation theory the super cooled stage was married by the appearance bubbles of the true vacuum, the broken symmetry of ground state . The model of old inflation theory however was later on abundant, because the exponential expansion of any supercooled state always prevented the bubbles from marching and complicated the phase transition. Moreover In true sense, the universe is not totally homogeneous but on a small scale non homogeneous too. It is very much a well known fact that the universe contains a critical density of matter (3K) and infinite space time. The matter was mostly baryonic and Mixed Dark Matter ( MDM) . Through COBE satellite studies we know that the early universe was a mixture of Cold Dark Matter and Hot Dark Matter, which is known all together as Mixed Dark Matter (MDM). Most Redshift surveys had been either shallow ( Z =< 0.03 ), and three dimensional surveys of a few thousands of galaxies covering a large angle or somewhat deeper (Z > 0.05).
How first generation galaxy and stars formed at redshift zero-:
So arguments still persist about the mechanism by which first galaxies and first generation stars were formed in the early universe. The essence of the problem is that while galaxies were on average, were uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the universe as it should be in the inflationary "Big Bang model " the observed distribution of both optically visible and radio galaxies on the sky were not at all uniform. But they were very patchy . Does this clumsiness represent that distribution of matter at some primaeval stage in the evolution of the universe or there has been some time of gravitational process? . Jerhimia Ostriker and Lennox Cowie ( Ref no 2 ) had suggested that the present distribution of galaxies is in the relic of a dynamic process, in which outward propagating shock waves created an earlier generation of galaxies. Created galaxies at some place were of high density on the shock front. But the problem of their theory to present authors are that the empirical rule which says the chance finding of a second galaxy within same value unit at a distance of "S" is proportional to an inverse power of "S" which simply means that there is a greater chance that galaxies will be close together than it is far apart. Secondly the distribution of galaxies in the universe may have a fractional three – dimensional structures. The most spectacular of large voids in three dimensions of galaxies is BOTES VOID - a region at least 50 MPS in diameter that contains no luminous galaxies. A survey of large scale galaxy distributions reveals that the" Large voids were not the exceptions, but the rules. The survey was the systematic collection of red shifts of all galaxies of apparent magnitude brightness than 15.5 in a region measuring 6 degrees by 12 degrees in the sky. The Red shifts via the'' Hubble laws `` provide us a three dimensional map of galaxy distributions in a limited volume of the universe. Inspection of the map of the galaxy revealed a striking results - large apparently empty ,quase spherical voids dominated space time and galaxies are crammed into the thin sheet and ridges in between hole ( ref no 3 Joseph Sick ) and Joseph Sick discussed in his article, that galaxies were distributed in a thin slice of universe to 150 MPC. The redshift measurement of galaxies however revealed a foamy and clustered distribution of galaxies in the early universe. Most of them were lying on a sheet , surrounding large almost empty holes up to 50 MPC. According to Ostriker and Cowie, an explosion initiated by many supernovas in a newly formed galaxy drove a blast wave, which propagated outward shock waves and swept away a spherical shell of ambient gas . A hole was thus evacuated and an unstable compressed shell fragmented to form many more galaxies. These in turn developed blast waves and a series of bubbles developed that filled most of the spaces with galaxies ( reference no 4 Jehemia Ostriker and Lennox Cowie ) and published independently by Satron Takeuchi ( reference no 5 ).
But problems of this hypothesis to present authors are *1) possibility of the mechanism itself-: supernovas exploded and cleared out holes that are tens or in rare cases hundreds of processors? and **2) Did this phenomenon really work out on the scale of MPC?*** 3) Billions of supernovas were presumed to be exploded coherently over the crossing time of galaxy of about 109 years to yield a vast explosions**** 4 ) Next is the missing ingredient which is gravity. Density fluctuations were present at the beginning of the time in the earliest instant of the "Big Bang gospel " and gravity amplified the fluctuations into a large-scale structure of the universe. Most cosmologists believe today that galaxies originated in this manner ,rather than explosive amplification of primordial seeds which themselves must be attributed into initial conditions.
A "giant hole" in the universe had been discovered by astronomers from Minnesota in 2009 January. Investigating an area of the sky known as the WMAF cold spot, Lawrence Rudnick and his colleagues found a void empty of stars gas and even dark matter. As AF's widely circulated report notes, the hole is big : an" expense of nearly 6 billions trillions miles of emptiness "astronomers have long known that there are big voids in the universe,and think they can explain them with their theories as to how large structures first formed ( reference no 6 Daniel Cressey) .
Galactic Disks of spiral galaxies consist of Dark matter, COBE study
Our galaxy ,the Milky Way, also contains disks of "Dark matter".Dark matter is always invisible but its presence can be inferred through its gravitational influence on its surroundings. Dark matter particles are neutral, it does not couple directly to the electromagnetic field and hence annihilation straight into two monochromatic photons ( or a Photon and a Z boson) are typically strongly suppressed, (y)Gamma rays can be a significant by product of Dark matter annihilation ) since they can rises either from the decay of neutral pions produced in the hydronization of the annihilation products or through Internal bremsstrahlung associated into charged particles,with annihilation into charged particles, interactions of energetic leptons. In the Massimiliano Lattazi and Joseph Silk model of 2009 ( Ref no 7) the annihilation results in two neutral Z Bosons or a pair of W+ and W- Bosons, and the dominant source of y ( Gamma) rays is pion decay . From =~4.5TeV, every annihilation results in 26 photons with energy between 200 and 300 Gev. Physicists today believe that dark matter makes 22% of the mass of the universe ( compared with 4%of normal matter and 74% comprising the supermassive ,"Dark energy" ) . But, despite its pervasive influences, even today no one is sure of what the dark matter consists of. It was thought that matter forms in roughly spherical lumps called halols, one of which envelopes the MilkyWay and other spiral galaxies. Stars and gas are thought to have settled into disks very early on, in the life of the universe and this affected how smaller dark matter halos formed. Such a theory suggests that most lumps of dark matter in our locality actually merged to form a halo around the Milky way. But the largest lumps were preferentially dragged towards the galaxy's disk and were then torn apart, creating a dicks of matter within the galaxy. The presence of unseen haloes of dark matter had long been inferred from the high rotation speed of gas and stars in the outer part of spiral galaxies. The volume of density of these dark matter decreases less quickly from the galaxy centre than does heat luminous mass such as that in stars meaning that that matter dominates the mass from the centre of galaxies .A spiral galaxy is composed of thin disk of young stars called population T stars whose local surface brightness falls below exponentially with cylindrical distances from galactic centres and with height above galactic plane.
Biassing hypothesis , Density fluctuations, COBE-:
The concept of biassing the formation of large scale structure of universe was first introduced by Nick Kesar in journal of astrophysics ( Reference no 8 Peacock JA , Heavens AF Monday And Reference no 9 Barden J Bond jr, kaiser Nick Essalay ). Galaxies were presumed only to form in the rare peaks of initial Gaussian distribution of density fluctuations. The average Density of the universe is roughly 10-31gcm-3 which is less than the critical density (K) of the present universe 9×10-27 kg m-3. ( The matter of which universe is made of 42.3% is CDM matter and 73% is Dark energy). Density fluctuations peaks that occurred in potential large scale structure acquired with a slight boost that enabled galaxies to form. The biassing hypothesis enhanced the large scale structure that developed as gravitational forces amplified the initial fluctuations. Biasing hypothesis enabled stimulation of a universe containing" Cold Dark Matter '' at the critical density, with observational determination of density perturbation of the universe. Density fluctuation was present at the beginning of time, in the earliest instances of the Big Bang and gravity amplified the fluctuations into the large scale structure of the universe. The voids were not really voids but contained matter that had somehow failed to become luminous. Dark matter was more uniformly distributed than luminous matter and does not respond to most astronomical tests. The universe is now populated with a non luminous component of matter ( Dark matter ) made of weakly interacting massive particles which cluster in galactic scale and are designated ….. The Dark matter was weakly interacting and was clustered in all scales( and hence labelled as cold ). It selectively formed galaxies at an early epoch in the rare density peaks. The cosmic background explorer study announced on 18th November 1990 that COBE had used its helium cooled detectors to make stunningly accurate measurements of the Big Bang afterglow. The COBE study was based on microwave background radiation that bathed every object of the universe with a cool wash of photon 2.7K .COBE study conferred that the Big Bang was a remarkably smooth and homogeneous event. The COBE study consistently pegged its temperature at about 2.7 K what was predicted by the standard model which holds that radiation was emitted by cosmic fireball just a few hundred after the big bang moment itself and cooling of ever since then. George Smoot ( 2006 Nobel laureate in physics) and his colleagues of Barkley University used differential microwaves radiometer to look for anisotropic variations in the brightness of radiation from point to point in the sky
They presumably correspond to the density variation in the cosmic plasma shortly after the big bang and these variations are in turn presumably the clumps of matter that contracted by gravity to form the galaxies . The problem was that anisotropic if they existed at all,were so weak that it was hard to see now that how they had contracted into much of galaxies Any clump that was going to form a galaxy needs to be heavy enough to fight the cosmic expansion which tends to pull the material apart almost as fast as gravity can pull it together. COBE showed no anisotropy at all to an accuracy of one part in 104 to 105 and it was dark matter. The dark matter consisted of some kind of massive but weakly interacting elementary particles produced in the Big Bang. The cosmic background explorer satellite study was undertaken by the leadership of George Smoot and he considered the Big Bang seriously. Microwave background study also provided that Big Bang COBE study had spotted millionth of a degree variations in the temperature of microwave left over from Big Bang traces of the early universe . Images of Big Bang,provide the earliest snapshots of the cosmos from when it was only about 4000,0000 years old only. The model of MDM of the universe is consistent with homogeneous inflation theory and large scale density fluctuations and galaxy distribution that happened in the early universe. It was Merry Gelman who first described the nature of the earliest particles in the universe. According to him it was quarks particles in Quantum theory. Actually speaking, the quest for the early universe had provided the particle physicists with development of an unrivalled accelerator of high energy particles in the Geneva LHC. The Grand unified theory ( GUT) based on gauge symmetry says that protons (the nucleon) should decay with half life of at most 1031 years. But while isolating the rarest events due to spontaneous decaying of protons ,extensive shielding from atmospheric muons produced by cosmic rays showers were also regarded and primary results once were supported at Geneva, Switzerland , at LHC . This experiment was carried out provided in the deep underground Kolar Goldfield,kamoka. This experiment provided us with the most sensitive limit so far that the half life of protons is 1.5x1032 years. This half life of protons is close to the age of the elements obtained from radioactive isotopes ~10x1032 years. This experiments had great implications to astrophysicists in that 1) possible explanation of ratio of proton to photon in the Universe.Since the photons now seen in 3K background radiation, are the remnants of equal numbers of particles and antiparticles created during thermal equilibrium of first instances of the universe. These particles were Merry Gelman's quark particles and its anti-particles were anti quarks . Today's observed protons ( matter) represent an excess of matter after antimatter . This is the asymmetry in the universe. This asymmetry probably had arisen naturally after 10-35 second of initial Big Bang.However Madsen and Mark Tailor gave the concept of another particle in the primordial universe (Reference no 10=Gerard Jungmank) .The name of their particles is neutrinos.There are broadly three types of species of neutrinos 1) Electron neutrinos 2) Muon neutrinos 3) tat neutrinos ,when professor Peter Higgs( Nobel laureate in physics) gave concept of another near zero mass ( but not exactly zero mass particle ) in primordial universe the particles named after him "The Higgs particles '' which is concluded and recognized particles that gave mass to all particles in the universe and Higgs particles are many but not a single particle . To start the universe ie before the nucleosynthesis there must be some particles with zero rest mass , which may be either neutrinos or may be one of Higgs particles or some others particles (not yet discovered in accelerator ) like Rupak particles ( r particles) or spinors or gravitons that gave dark energy which constitute 73% of the mass of universe. According to Maiden and Tailor the dark matter of which the universe consisted of were the neutrinos and not the quarks .Neutrinos are constantly born during the process of nuclear fusions within every star in the galaxy like it is produced in every second in our sun. In fusion, protons (the nucleus from the simplest element, hydrogen) fuse together to form a heavier element, helium. This fusion process releases neutrinos and energy that will eventually reach our Earth as light and heat. The sun is the source of most of the neutrinos that are passing through any body though any things through any planets at any moment. About 100 billion solar neutrinos pass through your thumbnail in every second .All of the neutrinos produced in the sun are electron neutrinos. An interesting thing happened when scientists started looking for those electron neutrinos in the 1960s. They started an experiment led by Ray Davis Jr. His experiment used 100,000 gallons of dry perchloroethylene to search for neutrinos. It was housed a mile underground in the caverns of the Homestake Gold Mine in South Dakota, which was then an active mine and is now used for science experiments, including further neutrino research in the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment. Davis’s scientific partner, John Bahcall, had predicted how many neutrinos should arrive from the sun and transform one of the chlorine atoms in the detector into an argon atom. But only one third of the neutrinos seemed to arrive. Researchers weren’t sure if the problem was in Davis’s experiment, Bahcall’s calculations and the current model of the sun, or their picture of neutrinos. Some scientists, including Bruno Pontecorvo, proposed that the neutrino experiment model itself was the error, but many were sceptical. In 1989, the Kamiokande experiment in Japan added to the confusion. The pure water detector found more neutrinos than Davis’s experiment, about half of the predicted number. But there was still the question of all those missing neutrinos. The GALLEX experiment in Italy and SAGE experiment in Russia also found that expected low-energy neutrinos were missing. As measurements of the sun improved and the solar model was validated, researchers looked more and more to new physics beyond the Standard Model to explain the neutrino deficit. The breakthrough came with data from two newer experiments. Super-Kamiokande, an improved version of the Kamiokande experiment, began observations in 1996, and the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Canada joined in 1999. Leaders of these two projects would go on to receive the 2015 Nobel Prize in physics for discovering the solution to the solar neutrino problem: neutrino oscillations. Roughly two-thirds of the electron neutrinos coming from the sun were changing their flavour as they travelled, arriving as muon or tau neutrinos. Evidence that neutrinos changed type also proved that they have mass, a shocking discovery. Only about one third to one half of the predicted number of neutrinos actually showed up in detectors. This became known as the solar neutrino problem, and it took nearly four decades to solve it.
How did the cosmic Dark age end and when did the first star light up in a few hundred millions years ,after the Big Bang?
According to the standard model of the Big Bang, stars formation in the early universe was very different from the present now. Stars today form in the giant clouds of molecular gas and dust embedded in the disks of large galaxies like our Milky Way or in the dust of nebulas . In the Milky Ways some of these regions are corona Australis clouds, Taras molecular clouds, Orion nebula , Vela ,molecular ridge, Cygnus x, NGC 6334 and 6357, Eagle Nebula, carina nebula,W40, Rcw 36, w43,W49, M17 molecular clouds and extragalactic 30 Doradus regions .
Whereas the first star evolved inside the Mini Hole that aggregated of primordial gas and dark matter with a total mass of millions of our suns. The very first stars might have appeared when the Universe was only 100 million years old, or less than 1 percent of its current age . All the stars in the universe, we can observe now, can be classified as either Population I or Population II, stars depending on their age and composition in it . Population I stars are younger stars and they contain more heavy elements, while Population II stars are older stars with fewer heavy elements. All of the very first stars that appeared first in the universe to light up the universe from darkness are described as Population III stars and these stars are older still, their existence coinciding with cosmic distances that put them well out of sight of even with help of our best technologies so far. For them now, we can only theorise what they might have looked like. Theoretical physicists think those most earliest stars were super hot, brightest, and massive, may be hundreds of times the mass of our Sun, that we told .Without any clue or history of powerful cosmic in the beginning events of formation of first stars to generate elements heavier than lithium, Population III stars would consist entirely of the simplest of gases. Back then, the only materials available in the Universe were hydrogen, helium, and a little lithium, found in primordial gas left over from the Big Bang. Only once the first stars themselves collapsed in heated violence ,could heavier elements emerge?.Those first stars likely concluded their lives with pair-instability supernovae, -a theoretical type of super-supernova only possible in such massive stars. Unlike other supernovae, this would leave behind no stellar remnants, like a neutron star or a black hole, instead blasting everything outward in an ever-expanding cloud. That blast might have seeded ancient interstellar space with the heavy elements needed for the formation of rocky worlds like our own planet — thus enabling life as we know it — so the net effect is positive . For astronomers on the earth now hoping to learn about Population III stars, however, the light from those ancient mega-explosions has faded into the distance, leaving little more than a diffuse cloud containing a complex mixture of elements. Given time, that mixture of material could itself collapse into something new star . Using near-infrared spectrography data from one of the most distant-known quasars — a type of active galactic nucleus, or the extremely luminous centre of a young galaxy.This quasar's light had been travelling through space for 13.1 billion years before it reaches the Earth, the researchers noted, which means we're seeing the quasar as it looked when the Universe was only 700 million years old. A spectrograph is an instrument that captures and splits incoming light, in this case from a celestial object, into its component wavelengths. This can reveal which elements are present in a far away object, although gleaning that information isn't always easy.The brightness of lines in astronomical spectra can hinge on factors other than the abundance of an element, which may complicate one's efforts to identify specific elements.Analysing the composition of clouds around most distant quasars revealed a strangely low ratio of magnesium to iron in the clouds, which had 10 times more iron than magnesium compared with our Sun. That was a clue, the researchers say, suggesting this was material from the cataclysmic explosion of a first-generation star.It was obvious to us authors then that the supernova candidate for this would be a pair-instability supernova of a Population III star, in which the entire star explodes without leaving any remnant behind,So the first stars that lit up the universe were in most distant quasars
These first stars are quasars, a population III stars. Since then, the rapid expansion of space has stretched their light into oblivion, leaving us to seek clues about their existence in cosmic sources closer to home . Another difference arises for the initial absence of elements of lithium in enough quantity, other than hydrogen and helium that were synthesised in the Big Bang. Gas clouds today are efficiently via radiation emitted by atoms , molecules,or dust grains that contain heavy elements. Because the primordial gas lacked those contain it remained comparatively hot. For gravity to overcome the higher thermal pressure, the mass of all first stars must have been larger as well . The emergence of the first stars in quasars fundamentally changed the early universe at the end of the cosmic dark age. Owing to high masses these stars were copious. They also produced many ultraviolet photons that were energetic enough to ionise hydrogen, the most abundant elements in the universe. Thus began the extension process re- re-ionisation which transformed the universe from the completely cooled and dark material state into fully ionised medium. Observation of CMB due to scattering of CMB photons of free electrons, phase constraints, in the onset of re ionisation . How the first stars were formed and how they affected the evolution of the cosmos assumes that dark matter is made of WIMP - yet undetected because they interact with normal matter only via gravity with weak nuclear interactions (Unlike normal matter, dark matter does not interact with the electromagnetic force. This means it does not absorb, reflect or emit light, making it extremely hard to spot. In fact, researchers have been able to infer the existence of dark matter only from the gravitational effect it seems to have on visible matter. Dark matter seems to outweigh visible matter roughly six to one, making up about 27% of the universe..)
A possible may be non baryonic dark matter is a WIMP candidate is the neutrinos particles,the lightest superpartner in mass supersymmetry theory but not the zero rest mass particles. Super symmetry postulated that for every known particle there must be a super partner thus effectively doubling the mass of the elementary particles .Most of the super particles that were produced after the Big Bang ( including sub quark 2 Rupak Particles ) were unstable and decayed . The neutrinos are expected to be rather massive having roughly the mass of hundreds of protons so they are a part of the cosmos.
There are three prominent hypotheses on non baryonic dark matter, called Hot Dark Matter (HDM), Warm Dark Matter (WDM), and Cold Dark Matter (CDM) and Mixed Dark matter ( MDM) ; some combination of these is also possible in MDM . The most widely discussed models for non baryonic dark matter are based on the Cold Dark Matter hypothesis, and the corresponding particle is most commonly assumed to be a neutralino. Hot dark matter might consist of (massive) neutrinos. Cold dark matter leads to a "bottom-up" formation of structure in the universe while hot dark matter results in a "top-down" formation scenario.
Most of the matter in the universe did not interact then with light except gravitationally .These dark matters assumed to be very intensively cold ,that is its velocity dispersion was sufficiently small for density perturbation imprinted in the early universe to persist in a very small scale. Dark matter has yet to be detected in the human laboratories.However there might exist some variable dark matter candidates from particle physics that were not cold and they may be termed as Warm Dark matter ( WDM) as per these authors. Warm dark matter particles had intensive thermal velocities and there motion quenched the growth of structure bellow a "Free streaming scale"(The distances over which a typical WDM particles travel),which depends on the nature of the particle, because small and dark haloes do not form better than free streaming scale. The dark matter haloes that formed the first quasars in a WDM model had far less substructures and we're less concentrated as compared to the cold dark matter( CDM) counterparts।
The first generation stars in the universe formed when the primordial gas compressed by falling into these small Dark matter potential walls. Large scale partners in the spectrum of density perturbation causes progenitors of present day clusters of galaxies to be among the first objects to condense out of initially almost smooth mass distribution
Liang Gao and Tom Theuns [ Reference no 11 Liang Gao] did studied the early star formation in the redshift z=0 and they concluded that pristine gas heated and falls into dark matter potential well (halos)cooled radiatively because of formation of molecular hydrogen and became self gravitating . They told another important particles called Gravitinos a popular WDM candidate with mass M 0<6×10−32 eV/c2 and spin 2 a free streaming particle of fewv+- EVs of kelopersec and first star at Redshift z~200 and the growth structure re stimulation in the led to a pattern of filaments and sheets which is familiar from the local large scale distribution of galaxies. The assumed Gaussian spectrum of density perturbation appropriate for an inflationary model led to collapse along one( sheet ) and two ( filaments) direction before formation of haloes. Altogether the large scale filamentary pattern is very similar in CDM and WDM. These structures of filaments themselves were very different. The CDM filaments fragmented later into numerous nearly spherical high density regions ( haloes) and WDM filaments fragmented at redshift z=23.34, when universe was 140 millions years old .Gas and dark matter accredited perpendicular to filament axis. Dark matter particles falling into filaments performed damped oscillation as the potential well deepened. Baryons did not undergo orbit but gas compressed to a temperature T~70000k at ty 20PC. Rapid build up of HE induced cooling and gas started to dominate the density in population III stars.
Conclusion
So the first stars in the universe were formed in quasars , when primordial chemically pristine gas heated up in the form of WDM as it fell into dark-matter potential wells, cooled radiatively because of the formation of molecular hydrogen, and became self-gravitating. Using supercomputer simulations, it was found by us that the first stars' properties also depended critically on the currently unknown nature of the dark matter. If the dark-matter particles have intrinsic velocities that wipe out small-scale structure, then the first stars formed in filaments with lengths on the order of the free-streaming scale, which can be ∼1020 metres (∼3 kiloparsecs, corresponding to a baryonic mass of ∼107 solar masses) for realistic “warm dark matter” candidates. Fragmentation of the filaments forms stars with a range of masses, which may explain the observed peculiar element abundance pattern of extremely metal-poor stars, whereas coalescence of fragments and stars during the filament's ultimate collapsed may seed the supermassive black holes that lurk in the centres of most massive galaxies.
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